General Knowledge-2020 PDF - PDFCOFFEE.COM (2024)

R.K. Saxena

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General Knowledge 2020 by R.K. Saxena Published by Prabhat Paperbacks 4/19 Asaf Ali Road, New Delhi–110 002

CONTENTS Prefacexiii

Indian History

1

Ancient India 3 Sources of Ancient Indian History 3 3 Literary Sources Archaeological Sources 6 Coin Types 8 Culture and Civilisation 9 The Stone Age: An Introduction 10 Indus Valley Civilisation 11 Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) 14 Later Vedic Period (1000 BC-600 BC) 19 Mahajanapada Period (600 BC-325 BC) 21 Magadha Empire 21 Haryanaka Dynasty (544 BC-412 BC) 22 Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BC-344 BC) 22 Nanda Dynasty (344 BC-323 BC) 22 Foreign Invasions 23 Religious Movements (600 BC-400 BC) 23 Maurya Period (322 BC-185 BC) 28 Post-Maurya/Pre-Gupta Period (185 BC-319 AD) 32 Kanva Dynasty (73 BC-28 BC) 32 Satavahana Dynasty (60 BC-225 AD) 32 The Cheti Dynasty of Kalinga 33 33 Foreign Successors of Mauryas Gupta Period (319 AD-540 AD) 34 The Hunas (500 AD-530 AD) 36 36 Vakatakas (3rd Century AD-5th Century AD)

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Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty (550 AD-647 AD) States of the Deccan and South India Sangam Age Religious Development Medieval India The Rajputs Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD-1526 AD) The Slave Dynasty (1206 AD-1290 AD) The Khilji Dynasty (1290 AD-1320 AD) The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD-1414 AD) The Sayyid Dynasty (1414 AD-1450 AD) The Lodhi Dynasty (1451 AD-1526 AD) Provincial Kingdoms Vijayanagar and Other Kingdoms Bahamani Kingdom Religious Movements in the 15th-16th Centuries Mughal Period (1526 AD-1540 AD and 1555 AD-1857 AD) Later Mughals Maratha State (1674 AD-1720 AD) and Maratha Confederate (1720 AD-1818 AD) The Peshwas (1713 AD-1880 AD) The Advent of Europeans Modern India

38 39 41 43 45 45 45 46 47 48 49 50 52 52 54 55 58 62 65 66 67 70

Expansion of British Power 70 71 Anglo-Mysore Wars Anglo-Burmese War 72 72 The Carnatic Wars Anglo-Maratha Wars 72 73 Economic Impact of British Rule Land Revenue Systems 73 74 Indian Renaissance The Revolt of 1857 AD 76 77 Indian National Movement The Partition of Bengal (1905) and Boycott and Swadeshi Movement (1905 AD-1908 AD) 78 The Gandhian Era (1917 AD-1947 AD) 81 82 Main Events During the Gandhian Era Growth of Modern Education in India 89 90 Important Foreign Travellers/Envoys Important Sayings 90 96 Governor-Generals and Viceroys Governor-Generals of India 97 Governor Generals of Free India (1947 AD-1950 AD) 99 Important National Leaders 99

Contents

v

Art and Culture 103 Art and Culture of India 105 Religion in India 105 Indian Literature and Languages 105 106 Literature of India Indian Architecture 109 The Schools of Art 110 Temple Architecture of India 111 112 Cave Architecture of India Rajput Architecture 113 Delhi Style of Architecture 113 114 Provincial Style of Architecture Mughal Style of Architecture 115 116 Post-Mughal Style of Architecture Colonial Architecture 116 Paintings of India 117 118 Classical Dance of India List of Indian Musical Instruments 120 Music 122 Puppetry 125 Important Places in India 127

World History 129 Ancient World Medieval world (500 AD-1500 AD) Modern world (1500 AD Onwards)

131 133 134

Geography 139 World Geography 141 Universe 141 141 Evolution of Universe Stars 141 Evolutionary stages of a star 142 The Solar System 142 142 Origin of Solar System Members of the Solar System 142 147 The Earth Internal Structure of the Earth 150 Rocks 152 Earthquakes 153 Volcanic Eruptions 153 Landforms 155 Mountains 155 Plateaus 155

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Plains 156 Atmosphere 157 Structure of the Atmosphere 157 158 Weather and Climate Winds 159 160 Primary Wind Movements (Permanent Winds) Secondary Wind Movements 160 161 Tertiary Wind Movement (Local Winds) Clouds 161 Climate 162 Forests 163 Hydrosphere 163 Relief of the Ocean Basin 164 167 Continents of the World Some Important Facts 170 Indian Geography

175

175 The Indian Subcontinent Physical Features 176 Himalayas 176 Hill Ranges of the Peninsula 178 179 The Coastal Plains The Island Groups 179 180 Drainage system of India Climate of India 182 183 Climatic Regions of India Soil 184 185 Agriculture in India Types of Farming 186 187 Green Revolution Impact of Green Revolution 187 187 Mineral Resources of India National Highways 188 200 States of India Glossary of Geographical Terms 201

Environment and Ecology

205

Environment 207 Ecology 208 Biodiversity 209 NTCA 210 210 Project Elephant Zones 211 Pollution 211 216 Critically Endangered Animal Species of India

Contents

Indian Polity and Constitution

vii

219

Constitution 221 Evolution OF Indian Constitution 221 221 Administrative and Legislative Reforms Before 1857 Administrative and Legislative Reforms After 1857 222 224 Constituent Assembly and Making of the Constitution Important Articles of the Constitution 227 230 Schedules of the Indian Constitution Important Cases of the Constitution 231 231 Some Special Features of the Indian Constitution Federal and Unitary Features of the Indian Union 232 232 Lapse of Paramountcy Integration and Merger of Indian States 232 233 Evolution of States and Union Territories The Preamble 233 234 Reorganization of States Timeline of States and Union Territories 234 Citizenship 234 Fundamental Rights 235 237 The Writs Fundamental Duties 239 240 Procedure for Amending The Constitution Executive of the Union 240 242 Powers of President The Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers 245 247 The Parliament of India Executive of the States: the Governor 254 256 Chief Minister’s (CM) Appointment Special Position of Jammu and Kashmir 260 Panchayats 260 Municipalities 262 262 The Supreme Court The High Court 265 267 Inter-State Council Finance Commission 267 268 National Development Council (NDC) National Integration Council 268 268 Inter-State Relations Emergency Provisions 269 270 Public Service Commissions Election 270 Delimitation Commission of India 271 The Official Languages 271 National Symbols 272

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Constitutional Amendments Some important Amendments of the Constitution Glossary of Constitutional Terms

Indian Economy

273 274 277

281

Characteristics of Indian Economy 283 283 Agriculture and Land Development National Income 286 288 Economic Planning Types of Planning 290 291 Niti Aayog Unemployment 293 294 Some Important Development and Employment Programmes Trade and Commerce 301 302 New Economic Policy Indian financial system 303 303 The Indian Capital Market Indian Fiscal System 305 307 Banking in India Tax System 310 Industry 311 Large Scale Industries 314 315 Foreign Direct Investment Foreign Trade 316 Demography 319 319 Miscellaneous Facts

Science 333 Physics 335 Unit 335 Kinematics 335 Motion 336 Friction 338 338 Work, Energy and Power Gravitation 339 Satellite 340 General Properties of Matter 341 Pressure 342 Floatation 342 343 Surface Tension Capillarity 343 Density 344 Viscosity 344 Wave 345 346 Important Terms

Contents

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Sound Wave 346 Heat 348 Relation between temperatures on different scales 348 349 Some Practical Applications of Thermal Expansion Transmission of Heat 349 Latent Heat or Heat of Transformation 350 Thermodynamics 351 Light 351 356 Human Eye Electricity 357 358 Electrochemical Cell Magnetism 359 360 Atomic and Nuclear Physics Electronics 362 Nanotechnology 363 CHEMISTRY 371 371 States of Matter Elements 371 Compounds 372 Mixtures 372 Separation of mixtures 372 374 Atomic Structure Radioactivity 376 Periodic Classification of Elements 377 378 Chemical Bonding Acids, Bases and Salts 380 Electrolysis 383 Faraday’s Laws of Electrolysis 383 Carbon and its Compounds 384 Hydrocarbons 384 Plastics 385 Uses of Some Important Organic Compounds 385 Fuels 386 Metallurgy 387 Compounds of Metals and Non-Metals and Their Uses 388 Important Facts About Some Metals 389 Non-Metal 390 Common Facts 391 Air, water and their Pollution 391 Smog 392 393 Man-made substance Glass 393 Soaps 393 BIOLOGY 395 Classification of Organisms 395 Study of Cell 395

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Genetics 399 Sex Determination in Human 399 Organic Evolution 400 Botany 401 Plants 401 Phanerogams or Floral Plant 401 Plant Morphology 402 403 Plant Tissue Photosynthesis 403 Plant Hormones 404 404 Plant Diseases Nitrogen cycle 404 404 Population and Biotic Community ZOOLOGY 406 Classification of Animal Kingdom 406 Some Main Groups of Phylum Chordata 407 408 Human Blood System of the Human Body 410 412 Circulatory System Excretory System 413 413 Excretory Products Central Nervous System 413 414 Peripheral Nervous System Skeletal System 414 415 Muscular System Reproductive System 417 Gonads 417 Respiratory System 418 418 Sense Organs Nutrients 419 Diseases 421 Biotechnology 422

Science and Technology

427

Indian Space Research Organisation

429

Information Technology

449

Computers 449 450 Classification of Computers Central Processing Unit (CPU) 452 Memory Unit (MU) 453 Input/Output 453 Computer Languages 454

Contents

World Panorama United Nations Important Lines and Boundaries

Indian Panorama National Insignia Defence Research in India India’s Missile Programme UNESCO World Heritage Sites of India Famous Tourist Places in India Important National and International Days and Dates

Books and Authors

xi

457 459 471

483 485 495 499 504 505 507

511

Alphabetical Listing of Books

513

Awards and Honours

533

International Awards International Beauty Contest India’s International Awards National Awards Other National Awards Gallantry Awards Literary and Cultural Awards in India Science Awards Sports Awards

Games and Sports

535 537 537 537 537 537 538 538 539

541

Olympic Games 543 Commonwealth Games 544 545 ASIAN Games SAF Games 545 Cricket 546 Women’s Cricket World Cup 546 546 ICC Twenty-20 Cricket World Cup ICC Twenty-20 Women’s Cricket World Cup 546 Football 546 Hockey 547 Volleyball 548 Table Tennis 548 Basketball 548 Badminton 548 Lawn Tennis 548 Sports Terms 549 Cups and Trophies Associated With Sports 550

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Abbreviations 553 Abbreviations of Associations 555 Industries and Companies Abbreviations 556 557 Health and Medical Abbreviations Foreign Base Abbreviations 557 559 Banking and Business Abbreviations Abbreviations of Defence 562 562 Educational Abbreviations Infrastructure in Universities and Higher Educational Institutions Abbreviations 563 563 General Abbreviations Official Abbreviations 566 568 Political Abbreviations Postal Telegraphic Abbreviations 569 Scientific Abbreviations 569 Resource Management Abbreviations 574 Railway Abbreviations 576 Sports Abbreviations 577 Military Abbreviations 580

Preface This is a well known fact that importance of GK is increasing day by day in terms of all competitive exams. Although, General Knowledge is the very basic knowledge of History, Geography, Science, Computer, Polity and Constitution etc. but due to latest researches and findings, facts keep on changing. Therefore, it is very important to be up-to-date in order to crack a competitive exam. This book is an attempt in that direction with all the latest data, facts and concepts. This book is based on the questions asked in different competitive exams but with an eye on the future prospects also. It is largely divided into different segments so that an aspirant can easily find out the desired information from it. Thus, it can be used as a reference book as well. – R.K. Saxena

Indian History

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Ancient India Sources of Ancient Indian History

• • • •

1. L iterary Sources : Vedic, Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit and other literature and foreign accounts. 2. Archaeological : Epigraphic, numismatic and architectural remains; archaeological explorations and excavations. Study of development of scripts:Palaeography. Study of inscriptions: Epigraphy. Study of coins:Numismatics Study of monuments, material remains: Archaeology.

LITERARY SOURCES • Winternitz writes in his work History of Sanskrit Literature, “It has never been the Indian way to make a clearly defined distinction between myth, legend and history; histography in India was never more than a branch of epic poetry.”

Puranic Literature

• The Puranic literature is very vast. • 18 main Puranas, 18 subsidiary Puranas and a large number of other books. • In all the Puranas royal genealogies are dealt with the reign of Parikshit, the grandson of Arjun, as a benchmark. This may be because of the fact that the coronation of Parikshit is considered to be the beginning of Kali Age.

Ramayana, Valmiki

• The composition of Ramayana started in 5BC. It passed through five stages, the fifth stage being 12AD. • 6000 verses to 12000 verses and finally 24000 verses.

• As a whole, this text seems to have been composed later than Mahabharata.

Mahabharata, Ved Vyas

• Reflects the state of affairs between 70BC to 4AD. • Originally 8800 verses, collection dealing with victory. • Later raised to 24000 verses- came to be known as Bharata after Bharat tribe • Final compilation: 1 lakh verses and came to be known as Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita. • Didactic portion from Post Maurya, Gupta times.

Vedic Literature

• The Four Vedas : We cannot find much trace of political history in the Vedas, but can have reliable glimpses of the culture and civilization of the Vedic period. • Vedic literature are entirely in a different language, which can be called the Vedic language. Its vocabulary contains a wide range of meaning and at times different in grammatical usages. • It has a definite mode of pronunciation in which emphasis changes the meaning entirely.

Later Vedic Literature Brahmanas

elaborate on vedic rituals

Aranyakas

give discourses on different spiritual and philosophical problems.

Upanishads

culmination of the vedas

Sulvasutra

prescribe measurements for sacrificial altars. Mark the beginning of study of geometry and maths.

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Srautasutra

account of royal coronation ceremonies

Grihyasutra

domestic rituals with birth, naming, marriage, funeral etc.

Jain and Buddhist Literature

• Jain literature was written in Prakrit language • Buddhist literature was written in Pali. • Since the modern historians have discarded most of the dynasties mentioned in the Puranas; and Mahavira and Buddha are considered historical personalities, only those portions of the puranic dynastic lists have been accepted which are supplemented and supported by the Buddhist and Jaina literature.

Jataka Stories

• Before he was born as Gautama, the Buddha passed through more than 550 births, in many cases in animal-form. • Each birth story is called Jataka. There are more than 550 such stories. • Throw light on socio-economic conditions between 5BC to 2BC.

Dhamasutras and the Smritis

• These are rules and regulations for the general public and the rulers. • It can be termed in the modern concept as the constitution and the law books for the ancient Indian polity and society. These are also called Dharmashastras. • These were compiled between 600 and 200 B.C. • Manusmriti and Arthashastra are prominent among them.

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

• A book on statecraft was written in the Maurya period. • The text is divided into 15 chapters known as books. • Different books deal with different subject matter concerning polity, economy and society. • Even before the final version of Arthashastra was written in the fourth century B.C. by Kautilya, there appeared a tradition of writing on and teaching of statecrafts because Kautilya acknowledges his debt to his predecessors in the field.

• M u d r a r a k s h a s a , a p l a y w r i t t e n b y Vishakhadatta, also gives a glimpse of society and culture.

Notable writers Kalidasa

Malavikagnimitram is based on some events of the reign of Pushyamitra Sunga dynasty which followed the Mauryas. Abhijanashakuntalam: glimpse of Guptas.

Bhasa and Sudraka

Wrote plays based on historical events

Banabhatta Harshacharita throws light on many historical facts Vakpati

Wrote Gaudauaho, based on the exploits of Yasovarman of Kanauj

Bilhana

Vikramankadevacharita describes the victories of the later Chalukya king Vikramaditya.

Kalhana

His book Rajatarangini.

Biographical Writings Banabhatta’s Harshacharita

7th AD Describes the early career of Harshavardhanacourtlife and social life in his age.

Sandhyakar Nandi Ramacharit. 12thAD Conflict between Kaivarta peasants and Pala prince Ramapala. Prince wins. Bilhana’s Vikramanakadevacharita

On the life of king Vikramaditya, the sixth

• Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha, • Kumarapatacharita or Duayashraya Mahakauya of Hemachandra, • Harnmirakavya of Nayachandra, • Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta, • Bhojaprabandha of Billal, • Prithuirajacharit of Chandbardai. • Sangam Literature • Earliest Tamil text

Indian History

• These poets assembled in colleges and compiled poems over a period of 3 to 4 centuries. This is Sangam literature. • Describes many kings and dynasties of South India. • This literature generally describes events upto the fourth century A.D. • Total 30,000 lines of poetry • Arranged in eight Anthologies called Ettuttokai • Two main groups, Patinenkilkanakku (18 lower collections) and the Pattupattu (ten songs). The former is older than the latter. • Some kings and events are supported by inscriptions also.

Foreign Accounts

Greek Ambassadors : • Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra by Greek kings. • Notable: Megasthenese, Deimachus and Dionysios. • They mention Sandrokottas (Chandragupta Maurya)- help fixing his date of accession at 322BC. This helps as sheet-anchor in Ancient Indian Chronology.

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Historians

• Notable: Herodotus, Megasthenese, Nearchus, Plutarch, Arrian, Strabo, Pliny the Elder, and Ptolemy (Geography). • They were concerned mostly with the north western part of India and primarily the areas which were either part of the Persian and Greek Satrapies or Alexander’s campaign. Megasthenese : • The Greek ambassador (in the court of Chandragupta Maurya c. 324-300 B.C.) • Megasthenese wrote extensively in a book called Indika which is no longer available to us. • We know about Megasthenese’s Writings through various extracts of the writings of Diodorous, Strabo and Arrian. • These fragments ofIndika, provide valuable information on Maurya Administration, social classes and economic activities. • The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had covered a period of about 6053 years uptill then.

Greek Writers Darius

India figures in his foreign inscriptions

Ctesian

Got Info of India from through the Persian sources.

Herodotus

In his “Histories” gives us much information about Indo-Persian relations

Arrian

Detailed account of the invasion of India by Alexander on the basis of information from those who accompanied the campaign.

Anonymous

Book: “Periplus of the Erythrean Sea” by an anonymous author, who was a Greek, settled in Egypton the basis of his personal voyage of Indian coast in about A.D.80. He gives valuable information about the Indian coasts.

Ptolemy

Wrote a geographical treatise on India in the second century A.D.

Chinese Travellers

• Visited India from time to time- as Buddhist pilgrims and therefore their accounts are

somewhat tilted towards Buddhism. Three important pilgrims were:

Notable Chinese writers Fa-Hien

visited India in fifth century A.D. Describes social-religious and economic conditions of India in the time of Guptas.

Hiuen-Tsang

7thCentury. In the age of Harshavardhana and some other contemporary kings of Northern India.

I-tsing

7thCentury

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Arab Historian: Al-Beruni

Inscriptions

• James Burger writes, “Indian inscriptions are the real archives of the annals of its ancient history of the contemporaneous witnesses of the events and of the men whose deeds they handed down and their authencity renders them most valuable and deserving careful record.” • The Inscriptions occupy a unique position as a source material of Indian history. • Inscriptions were carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, bricks, images etc. and so cannot be altered, subtracted from or added to. • While in case of books, there is possibility of interpolations by known and unknown authors, that is not the case with inscriptions. In the country as a whole the earliest inscriptions were recorded on stone. • The earliest inscriptions were written in the Prakrit language in the 3rd century BC. Sanskrit was adopted as an epigraphic medium in the 2nd century AD and its use became widespread in the 4th-5th century AD. • There can be various kinds of inscriptions: commercial, magical, religious and didactic, administrative, eulogistic, votive or dedicative, Archaeological Sources donative, commemorative and literary. Ashokan Inscriptions • These were recorded in different years of Megaliths : his reign and are called edicts because they • Some people in South India buried their are in the form of the king’s order or desire. dead with tools, weapons, potteries etc. Such graves were encircled by a big piece of stone. • They also give a glimpse of Ashoka’s image and personality as a benevolent king These structures are called Megaliths. concerned with the welfare of not only his Carbon-Dating principle subjects but also of the whole humanity. • Half life-period during which, half of the • These are found written in four scripts. material decays out. Language used in Ashokan inscriptions • Half-life of C14 is 5568 years. Empire Script used in Ashokan Edicts • Carbon is associated with all living beings. Afghanistan 1. Aramaic • When an object ceases to live, it stops 2. Greek scripts 14 receiving fresh supply of Carbon C Pakistan 3. Kharoshthi evolved on the • And its existing undergoes decacy into Varnantata system of the an isotope C12. Indian languages and is written 14 12 • We can measure the decaying of C to C from right to left. and identify the number of years elapsed. • Abu Rihan better known as Al-Beruni. • Born in central Asia in A.D. 973 and died in Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan) in A.D.1048 • Contemporary of Mahmud of Ghazni. • When Mahmud conquered part of central Asia, he took Al-Beruni with him. • Though Al-Beruni deplored his loss of freedom, he appreciated the favourable circumstances for his work. • Unlike Megasthenese, Al-Beruni studied Sanskrit language and tried to gain a precise knowledge of Indian sources. The list of works consulted by him is long and impressive. His observations range from philosophy, religion, culture, society to science, literature, art and medicine. • Al-Beruni’s work can be termed as fairly objective and wherever he has faltered- is not because of any other reason but his lack of proper understanding. • Does not give any political information of his times. • Comparatively free from religious or racial biases.

Indian History Kalsi in the north in Uttaranchal upto Mysore in the south

4. Brahmi • written from left to right. • Its individual letters were modified century after century and through this process all the scripts of India, including Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam in the south and Nagari, Gujarati, Bangla., etc. in the north have developed from it.

• Firoz Shah Tughlaq found an Ashokan Pilar inscription from Topra, Haryana, brought it to Delhi and asked Pandits to decipher it. How ever they failed in this endeavour. • James Prinsep made a complete chart of Ashokan Alphabets in 1837. After this the study of epigraphs became a subject in itself. Thus, the oldest inscriptions deciphered so far were issued by Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. But the earliest inscriptions were found on the seals of Harappa belonging to about 2500 BC. • Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks, Sakakshatrapas and Kushanas adopt Indian names within two or three generations. These inscriptions show them engaged in social and religious welfare activities like any other Indian.

Sanskrit

• Most of the Gupta epigraphs give genealogy. This became the practice of the subsequent dynasties. They took the opportunity to give an account of their conquests and achievements of their predecessor including mythology of their origins. • Sanskrit came to occupy a prominent place since the Gupta period. • The Harappan inscriptions seem to have been written in a pictographic script, are commercial inscriptions. There are also references to the use of seals for commercial purposes in other inscriptions: Mandsore stone inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman Malwa (S.V. 529). • The inscriptions of Ashoka are the best specimen of the religious and didactic

• •

• • •

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inscriptions. The edicts of Ashoka are appropriately called Dhamma-Lipi. The Sohagaura Copper plate inscriptions of the 3rd century BC is an example of pure administrative inscription. The Junagarh Rock Inscription contains inscriptions of Ashoka, Rudraman I and Skandagupta. Banskhera copper plate gives us information about harshavardhana and his ancestor Naravardhana. The Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharvela of Kalinga belongs to the category of pure eulogy. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription, written by Harisena, the court poet of Samudragupta, is also a good example of pure eulogistic inscription. The Aihole Inscription of Pulakesin II is a good example of votive inscription which gives a dynastic genealogy. The Gwalior Inscription of Bhoja gives full account of his predecessors and their achievements. The Piprahwa vase inscription records the dedications of the relic casket of Lord Buddha. The Besnagar Gruda Pillar Inscription of Heliodorus also belongs to this category.

Coins

• Although a good number of coins have been found on the surface, many of them have been unearthed by digging. The study of coins is called Numismatics. • The numismatic evidence is the second important source to determine the chronology, property, territorial extent, religion and relation with neighbouring countries of the reigning king and dynasty; the most important source being inscriptions. • The coins alone tell us the history of the Saka, Kushanas, Scythians, Parthians and the Bactrian Greeks. The Greek coins refer to about 30 Greek kings and queens who ruled in India. • The existence of the Malavas, Yaudheyas and Mitra rulers of Panchala is known only from the coins. • The coins of Satavahanas supplement, correct and corroborate the accounts of the Puranas. The Kushana coins

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unmistakably point out the relation between India and Rome. The numerous coins of the Gupta Kings prove their prosperity and their high artistic sense. Coins have helped us to fix the dates of Samudragupta. The earliest coins of India have only figures, devices or symbols and no legends. Some coins were issued by merchants and guilds with permission of rulers. This proves that commerce had become important in later history of Ancient India. Coins found in systematic excavations are less in number but are very valuable because their chronology and cultural context can be fixed precisely.

Coin Types Punch-Marked Coins

• The earliest coins of India so far found were punch-marked silver or copper pieces. Usually these were square or rectangular in shape and called Karsapana. This type of coin was prevalent between 7th century BC and 2nd century BC. • The basic silver punch-marked coin of the usual type was the Karsapana of 57.8 grains (3.76 grams). The Masa or Masika weighed one-sixteenth of this or 3.6 grains. Gold Coins : Nishka, Hiranyapinda and Suvarnadhool (1400 BC) • However, Nishka was not a gold coin but a gold ornament. Rayya : Silver coins (It was a measurement batt).

• They do not bear any inscription, or legend on them. • These have been found throughout the country from Taxila to Magadha to Mysore or even further south. • Only one gold punch-marked coin is known and it must be assumed that gold was very rarely minted before the beginning of the Christian era.

Indo-Greek Coins

• The Indo-Greek coins show beautiful artistic features on them.

• The portrait or bust of the king on the obverse side appear to be real portraits. On the reverse some deity is depicted. • From these coins we know that more than forty Indo-Greek rulers ruled in a small north-western region of India. • The earlier Greek kings minted coins according to the Attic standard, based on the drachm of 67.2 grains and the obol (onesixth of drachm) of 11.2 grains. • Silver coinage of this type ranges from hemiobols to the very large double decadrachms, struck by a king Amyntas, which have recently been found in Afghanistan. • After their southward expansion, the Greeks adopted a reduced weight, with silver coins of 152 and 38 grains. • The Greek kings issued numerous copper coins, but their metrology is not clear. Gold coins must have been very rare. There exist a very large 20 stater piece of the Bactrian usurper Eucratides and rare staters of a few other kings. • Saka and Pahlava coins in silver and copper follow the reduced Indo-Greek standard.

Kushanas Coins

• Kushanas issued mostly gold coins and numerous copper coins which are found in most parts of north India up to Bihar. • The Gold Dinaras or Suvarnas were based on the Roman denarius and were of 124 grains (8.04 grams). Double and quarter Dinaras were also issued. The copper coins were large, from 26 to 28 Masas or 240 to 260 grains (15.55 to 16.85) grams. • The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Siva standing beside a bull. • In the legend on these coins the king calls himself Maheshwara, i.e. devotee of Siva. • Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have this depiction on their coins. • We find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on Kushana coins besides many Persian and Greek deities.

Pre Guptan and Guptan Coins

• Gupta kings issued largest number of Gold coins.

Indian History

• A large range of coins in silver and copper of varied weight and character, was issued by the indigenous kings, tribes and cities of Northern India in the centuries immediately preceding and following the beginning of the Christian era. • The Satavahanas issued coins of lead and potin (base silver). Satavahanas’ copper coins with the Ujjain symbol bearing a ship were abundant in Avanti. • The gold coins of the Guptas (Dinara) originally approximated to the Kushana standard, but in the middile of the 5th century rose in weight to 144 grains, thus returning to the Indian standard of the copper Karsapana. • The silver coins (Rupaka or Rupiya) of the Guptas based on those of the Sakas of Ujjaini, weighed 32-36 grains. • The metrology of Gupta copper coinage is obscure, and weights of those from 3.3 to 101 grains are attested. • Kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow or battle-axes, playing musical instrument or performing Ashwamedh yajna.

Excavations

• In addition to epigraphic and numismatic sources there are many other antiquarian remains which speak much about our past. • Temples and sculptures are found all over the country right from the Gupta period upto recent times. • These show architectural and artistic history of the Indians. • They excavated large caves in the hills in Western India which are mostly Chaityas and viharas.

Culture and civilisation • The people of a particular region in a particular period adopt one pattern, while others in other areas adopt a different behaviour. In the language of History and Sociology they are called Cultural Groups. • Each culture group has its own language, its own type of family organisation, its own form of economic life and system of

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• • •

9

law, its own art and literature, scientific knowledge and its own beliefs in religion. These various ways of acting and thinking constitute Culture. When the group is very large and its organisation is complex, the culture is called Civilisation. It includes economy, social condition, religious condition and political condition. The earliest traces of human activity in India, so far discovered, go back to the second Inter-Glacial Period i.e., 400,000 and 200,000 BC and these show evidence of the use of stone implements. The part of man’s past that was not recorded in writing is referred to as Pre-History. The archaeologist who studies Pre-History, does so by analysing artefacts that are usually uncovered through excavation. Artefacts are objects made, modified or used by man. It is any object that involves human skills. The first modern use of term Pre-History was made in 1581 by Daniel Wilson in his text The Archaeology and Pre-Historic Annals of Scotland. T Wilson (1899) writes, “Man be assumed to be Pre-historic wherever his chroniclings of himself are undesigned and his history is wholly recoverable by induction”. Pre-History ends about 4000 BC. Proto-History refers to the transitional period and though it is a part of Pre-History, it has written records which are not deciphered yet. History may be defined as the recorded memory of mankind. History is primarily the story of the people of a nation. It is a progressive record of their life and achievements. The exploits and traditions of people serve as the pillars on which the superstructure of history is built to elucidate the characteristic reaction of the people to political, social and economic changes. History includes the story of political changes and vicissitudes which create the forces and conditions operating upon life, social institutions and beliefs.

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General Knowledge  2020

The Stone Age: An Introduction • The Palaeolithic culture of India developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age. • Palaeolithic men belonged to the Negrito race. Homo sapiens first appeared towards the end of this phase. • Palaeolithic men were hunters and food gatherers. They had no knowledge of agriculture, fire or pottery; they used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones and lived in cave rock shelters. They are also called Quartzite men. • The main tools used during palaeolithic age include hand axes, cleavers, choppers, flakes, burins and scrapers. • The Mesolithic people survived by hunting, fishing and gathering food; at a later stage, they also domesticated animals. • Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals. • The people of Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages practised painting. Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh is a striking site of prehistoric painting. • The term Neolithic was coined by Sir John Lubbock in his book ‘Pre-Historic times”. • The Neolithic settlers were the earliest, farming communities. They produced ragi and horse-gram (kulathi). Neolithic sites

• • •

• •

in Allahabad district are noted for the cultivation of rice in the sixth millennium BC. They domesticated cattle, sheep and goats. They wove cotton and wool to make clothes. Handmade pottery and use of potter’s wheel first appear during the Neolithic Age. The earliest evidence of use of pottery in the world was found in “Chopani Mando”. Koldihwa in Uttar Pradesh revealed a three-fold cultural sequence: Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age. Mehargarh in Baluchistan is the oldest Neolithic site in India (7000 BC). Belan Valley of Vindhyas and middle part of the Narmada Valley show all the three phases of the Stone Age. Chalcolithic people primarily were rural communities. They domesticated animals and practised agriculture. They were not acquainted with the technique of burnt bricks and lived in thatched houses. They venerated the mother Goddess and worshipped the bull. The people of Chalcolithic culture were the first to use painted pottery. Black and red pottery painted with white line design was the most popular. The Malwa ware is considered the richest among the Chalcolithic ceramics.

Overview of Stone Age Stone Age Lower Palaeolithic Age

Period (500000 BC-100000 BC)

Middle Palaeolithic Age (100000 BC-40000 BC) Upper Palaeolithic Age (40000 BC-9000 BC)

Mesolithic Age

(9000 BC-4000 BC)

Neolithic Age

(4000 BC-1000 BC)

Tools Hand axe, cleavers and choppers Blades, Point and Scrapers Bone tools, needles, fishing tools, harpoons, blades and florin tools Microlithic, pointed cresconic blades, scrapers Polished stone

Sites Pahalgam, Belan Valley (U.P.), Bhimbetka (M.P.), Narmada Valley, Soan Valley Sindh, Rajasthan, M.P., West Bengal A.P., Karnataka, M.P., U.P., Rajasthan, Gujarat

Adamgarh (M.P.), Bagor (Rajasthan), Langhanaj (Gujarat) Mehrgarh (Pak) Gufkral and Burzahom (J&K), Mahgara, Chopani Mando, Kodihwa in Belan Valley (U.P.), Chirand (Bihar)

Indian History Chalcolithic Culture

(2800 BC-700 BC)

Distinct painted pottery

Copper Hoard Culture

• OCP Culture (Ochre Coloured Pottery) • Harpoons, Antennae Swords Anthromorphs. • Pottery with bright red slip & painted black Gungeria (MP) is found all over the Gangetic plain with some regions of copper hoard culture.

Pre-historical findings

• Bhimbetka–Homo sapiens’ cave 500 Painted Rock Shelters (MH) • Nevasa–Evidence of cotton • Atranjikhera–Textile Printing • Hastinapur–Wild Sugarcane • Inamgaon–Statue of Mother Goddess • Mehargerh–Earliest evidence of agriculture, settled life • Koldihva–Earliest evidence of rice • Bagor and Adamgarh–Earliest evidences of domestication of animals • Chirand–Serpant cult Burzahom • Gufkaral–Pit-dwelling • Ahore people (Aravalli region)–distinctive black & red ware decorated with white designs. • Prabhas & Rangpur wares have a glossy surface due to which they are called lustrous red ware. • Jarwe culture (Maharashtra)–Painted black on red but has a matt surface treated with a wash.

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Cultures: Ahar culture (oldest), Kayatha, Malwa culture, Salvada culture, Prabhas culture, Rangpur culture and Jarwe culture

Indus Valley Civilisation • The most accepted period–2500 BC-1750 BC (by Carbon-14 dating). • John Marshall was the first scholar to use the term ‘Indus Valley Civilisation’. • The Indus Valley Civilisation belongs to Protohistoric Period (Chalcolithic Age/Bronze Age). • Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappa Civilisation in 1921. • R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or Mound of the Dead in 1922. • The Indus Valley Civilisation was spread over Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Western Uttar Pradesh and Northern Maharashtra. • The northernmost site of Indus Valley Civilisation–Manda (Chenab)/JammuKashmir (now). • The southernmost site of Indus Valley Civilisation–Daimabad (Pravara)/ Maharashtra (now). • The easternmost site of Indus Valley Civilisation–Alamgirpur (Hindon)/Uttar Pradesh. • The westernmost site of Indus Valley Civilisation–Sutkagen Dor (Dashk), Makran Coast, Pakistan-Iran Border.

Indus Site at a Glance Site

District

River

Year of Excavation Archaeologist (s)

Alamgirpur

Meerut, Uttar Pradesh

Hindon

1974

Y.D. Sharma

Banawali

Hisar, Haryana

Ghaggar

1974

R.S. Bisht

Chanhudaro

Sindh, Pakistan

Indus

1931

M.G. Majumdar

Dholavira

Gujarat

Rann of Kutch

1985–90

M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal

Harappa

Montgomery, Pakistan, Punjab

Ravi

1921

Daya Ram Sahni

Kalibangan

Hanumangarh, Rajasthan

Ghaggar

1953

B.B. Lal

Kot Diji

Khairpur, Sindh

Indus

1953

Fazal Ahmed

Lothal

Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Bhogava

1957

S.R. Rao

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General Knowledge  2020

Mohenjo daro

Larkana, Sindh

Indus

1922

R.D. Banerjee

Rangpur

Ahmedabad, Gujarat

Bhadar

1931

R.S. Bisht

Ropar

Rupnagar, Punjab

Sutlej

1953

Y.D. Sharma

Surkotada

Gujarat

Rann of Kutch

1964

J.P. Joshi

Sutkagen Dor

Makran, Balochistan

Dasht

1927

R.L. Stein

• Capital cities–Harappa, Mohenjodaro. • Port cities–Lothal, Sutkagen Dor, Allah­ adino, Balakot, Kuntasi and Daimabad were coastal towns of the civilisation. • Mohenjodaro–The largest site of Indus Valley Civilisation. • Rakhigarhi–The largest Indian site of Indus Valley Civilisation. • Common features of major cities: Systematic town planning on the lines of grid system; Use of burnt bricks in construction; Underground drainage system (giant water reservoirs in Dholavira); Fortified citadel (exception: Chanhudaro). • A common feature of this was grid system, i.e. streets cutting across one another at right angles, dividing the town into large rectangular blocks. • The Great Bath (Mohenjodaro): It was used for religious bathing. • The Granaries (Harappa): Six granaries in a row were found in the Citadel at Harappa. • Windows did not face the main streets. They had tiled bathrooms. • Lamp-posts were erected at regular intervals. • Surkotada (Kutchh district, Gujarat): The only Indus Valley site where the remains of a horse have actually been found. • Main Crops: Wheat, Barley and Cotton • The Harappans were the earliest people to produce cotton. (It was called Sindon by the Greeks.) • Exports: Agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, pottery, certain beads (from Chanhudaro), conch-shell (from Lothal), ivory products, copper, etc. Major Imports Imports Gold Silver

From Kolar (Karnataka), Afghanistan, Persia (Iran) Afghanistan, Persia (Iran), South India

Copper Tin Lapis Lazuli and Sapphire Jade Steatite Amethyst Agate

Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan, Arabia Afghanistan, Bihar Badakshan (Afghanistan) Central Asia Shaher-i-Sokhta (Iran), Kirther Hills (Pakistan) Maharashtra Chalcedonies and Saurashtra, and West India Carnelians.

• Agriculture was the backbone of the civilisation. • They used wooden plough share (ploughed field from Kalibangan) and stone sickles for harvesting. • Gabarbands or nalas enclosed by the dam for string water were a feature in parts of Baluchistan. Grains were stored in granaries. • Sugarcane was not known to the Indus Valley people. • Animal rearing was practised and mainly humped bull was reared. They domesticated buffaloes, oxen, sheep, asses, goats, pigs, elephants, dogs, cats, etc. • Camel bones have been reported at Kalibangan. • Trade was based on Barter System. Coins are not evident; bullock carts, animals and boats were used for transportation. • Weights and measures were made of limestone, steatite, etc. • Linear system of measurement was in use. • Foreign trade flourished with Mesopotamia or Sumeria (Iraq), Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan and Bahrain. • Iron was not known to these people although copper, bronze, silver and gold were known. • The Sumerian texts refer to trade relations with Meluha which was the name given to the Indus Valley region.

Indian History

• Shatughai and Mundigaq were the Indus Valley sites found in Afghanistan. • The Sumerian texts also refer to two intermediate stations–Dilmun (Bahrain) and Makan (Makran coast). Susa and Ur are Mesopotamian places where Harappan seals were found. • Harappans used stone tools and implements, and were well acquainted with bronze. • Pottery, both plain (red) and painted (red and black), was made. • Seals were made of steatite; pictures of one-horned bull (the most), buffalo, tiger, rhinoceros, goat and elephant are found on the seals. These seals marked ownership of property. • Steatite was mainly used in the manu­ facture of seals. • Metal images: Bronze image of a nude woman dancer (identified as devdasi) and stone steatite image of a bearded man have been obtained from Mohenjodaro. • Terracotta figurines: Fire-baked clay was used to make toys, objects of worship, animals, cattle toys with movable head, toycarts, whistles shaped like birds and both male and female figurines. • The Indus valley civilisation was primarily urban. • It was Pictographic in nature first symbol is most represented. • Overlapping of the letters in the script shows that it was written from right in the second line. The style is called Boustrophedon. Harappan Sites and their Archaeological Findings Harappan Sites

Archaeological Findings

Harappa

Gateway city, fortified wall, workmen’s quarter, copper chariot with canopy, R-37cemetry vanity case, seven layers showing preHarappan to late Harappan stage, two statues (red stone torso and a dancer), copper specimen of bullock cart.

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Mohenjodaro

‘Mound of the dead’–wellknown for the Great Bath, Great Granary, Collegiate Building and Assembly Hall. A steatite male head with flowing hair, long-bearded; the bronze dancing girl and complex toys.

Kalibangan

Mud-brick fortification, stone blade, cart wheel, a grave in east-west direction, discovery of a plough field, no drainage system, wall bifurcating citadel, fire altars

Koti-Diji

Defensive wall, wheel-turned pottery. Blade industry and houses of stone.

Chanhu-Daro

Brick or Stone fortification, curved bricks for bath tubs, water tanks, intersecting circles painted on jars, toys like decorated carts with humped oxen, fish compartmented seals of faience, bronze shafthole axe.

Amri

Evidence of antelope ditches, shopping complex, traces of drainage and platforms, Lronze tools and knives.

Ropar

Ware with and without slip, black and red ware and ochre-coloured ware, spouted vessels and copper objects.

Banwali

Pre-Harappan and Harappan sites; remains of streets and drains; traces of barley.

Alamgirpur

Pottery; black ware, red ware, plant fossils, animal bone and copper tools.

Suktagendor

Trade point between Harappa and Babylon is situated on a natural rock in western-most site.

Lothal

A coastal site, dockyard built with brick, discovery of dyeing-vats, Large cemetery, Rice grain funnel, evidence of cotton, bead factory, pottery with the painting of ‘clever fox’; Iranian Seal, Ivory etc.

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General Knowledge  2020

Surkotada

Rangpur

Flourishing urban centres, elaborate fortification, shipping complex, large stone-age jar with a short inscription, bead industry, antimony rod, fossils, remains of horses. Surrounded by a fort, local Rangpur Pottery (red ware, lustrous red ware), plant remains (rice, millets and possibly bajra) and copper rod.

Rojdi

Red pottery, perforated jars and sprinklers.

Dholavira

Several cultural stages; three parts of city; unique water management, first evidence of stone architecture, largest Harappan inscription, use of fire-altars.

Kunal

Silver crown.

Mitathal

Copper Axe.

Religious Practices

• The Harappan people did not worship their gods in temples. An idea of their religion is formed from the statues and figurines found. • Shiva-Shakti worship, the oldest form of worship in India, appears to have been part of the religious belief of Harappan people (especially humped bull). • The origin of the Swastika symbol can be traced to the Indus Valley Civilisation. • Chief female deity: A terracotta figure, where a plant is shown growing out of the embryo of a woman, represents Mother Goddess (Goddess of Earth). • Chief male deity: Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Shiva), represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two horns. He is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino and a buffalo and two deer appear at his feet. • Lingam and yoni worship was prevalent. • Indus Valley people believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. Fire altars are found at Lothal and Kalibangan.

• Evidence of snake worship is also found. • General practice was extended inhumation in North-South direction. Decline of Harrapan Civilisation Thinkers

Views

Wheeler, Piggot and Gordan Childe

External Aggression

Sahani

Inundation

KVR Kennedy

Epidemic

Marshall and Raikes

Tectonic Disturbance

Wheeler

Sudden Decline

RL Stein and AN Ghosh

Climatic Change

Marshal, SR Rao, Maickey

Flood

HT Lambrick, Walter Fairservis, Sood and Aggarwal

Unstable river system, Ecological imbalance, Dryness of river

Sites of Pre-Harappan Civilisation (Now outside India) Site

Situation

Dabarkot Kotdiji Ranaghundai Anjira Goomla Deh Morasi Ghundai

Baluchistan Sindh (Pak) Baluchistan Baluchistan Afghanistan Afghanistan Afghanistan

Vedic Culture (1500 BC-600 BC) • Aryans were migrated from outside [Central Asia (Max Muller)/Europe/Arctic region B.C. Tilak]. • Boghazkai inscription (Asia Minor, Turkey) proves Central Asian Theory as their homeland. • The group that came to India first settled in the present Frontier Province and the Punjab–then called Sapta Sindhu, i.e. region of seven rivers. • Vedic literature comprises four literary productions: (1) The Samhitas or Vedas; (2) The Brahmans; (3) The Aranyakas; (4) The Upanishads.

Indian History

• There are four Vedas–Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The first three Vedas are jointly called Vedatrayi, i.e. trio of Vedas.

RigVeda

• The oldest religious text in the world. • Collection of hymns, composed around 1700 BC, contains 1,028 hymns and is divided into 10 mandalas. • The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra. • Saraswati is the deity river in the Rigveda. • Rigveda consists of 10 Mandalas of which 2nd to 7th are the earliest Mandalas each of which is ascribed at a particular family of Rishi Gritsamad, Viswamitra, Vama, Atri, Bharadwaja, Vashistha. VIII Mandal is ascribed to Kanvas and Angiras. IX Mandala is the compilation of soma hymns. • The 10th Mandala of Rigveda contain the Purushasukta hymn which tells about the origin of caste system.

• There are 108 Upanishads and the period of 800 BC to 500 BC is known as the period of Upanishads. • 11 are predominant and they are called mokhya Upanishadas.

Vedangs

• They are the limbs of the Vedas. These are treaties of Science and Arts. • There are six Vedangs: ii. Shiksha (Phonetics) iii. Kalpa Sutras (Rituals) iv. Vyakarana (Grammar) v. Nirukta (Etymology) vi. Chhanda (Metrics) vii. Jyotisha (Astronomy) • Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi (4th century BC) on Vyakarana.

Brahmanas

• These are the prose commentaries on various vedic hymns. • The most important is the ‘Shatapatha Brahmana’ attached to Yajurveda.

Samaveda (book of chants)

• It is a collection of melodies. The hymns of the Samaveda were recited by Udgatri at the Soma sacrifice. • It contains Dhrupad Raga.

The Aranyakas

• The sages dwelling in the forest explained the Vedic scriptures to their pupil in the form of Aranyakas.

Upavedas

YajurVeda

• The beliefs and rituals of non-Aryans are written in it. • Two texts of Yajurveda are: ƒƒ Shukla (White) Yajurveda ƒƒ Krishna (Black) Yajurveda.

• • • •

There are four Upavedas: Ayurveda (Upaveda of the Atharvaveda) Dhanurveda (Upaveda of the Rigveda) Gandharvaveda (Upaveda of the Samaveda). Sthapatyaveda (Upaveda of the Yajurveda)

• • • • • •

There are six systems of Hindu philosophy, given by six philosophers of ancient India. Nyaya (analysis) Gautama Vaisesika Kanaad Sankhya Kapila Yoga (application) Patanjali Purva Mimansa Jamini Uttar Mimansa Vyasa

Philosophy

AtharvaVeda

• It is book of magical formula. • Mentioned of the Gotra is found in Atharvaveda.

The Upanishads

• Also called Vedarita because they denote the last phase of the Vedic period. • They define the doctrine of Karma, Atman (soul), Brahma (God), and origin of Universe.

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General Knowledge  2020

Puranas

• It refers to the change in the mode of worship (from sacrifice to idol worship) and visual appeal of deities as against worship of ideas. • There are 18 famous ‘Puranas’. Matsya Purana is the oldest Puranic text.

Sutras

• Sutra literature is divided into three classes: ƒƒ Srauta Sutra–Dealing with large public sacrifices ƒƒ Griha Sutra– Dealing with rituals con­ nected with birth, naming, marriage ƒƒ Dharma Sutra–Explain social and local customs

Smritis

• Dharma Shastra is the other name for smritis, which are the law books written in shloka form. • Manav Dharma Shastra or Manusmirti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is supposed to be the first king and law maker.

Epic

• There are mainly two Mahakavyas (Epics): i. The Ramayana (Valmiki): It is known as Adi Kavya (the oldest epic of the world). At present, it consists of 24,000 shlokas. ii. The Mahabharata (Ved Vyasa): The longest epic of the world. At present, it consists of 1,00,000 shlokas, i.e., verses in 18 Parvans, i.e., chapters, plus the Harivamsa supplement. Bhagavad Gita is extracted from Bhishma Parvan of Mahabharata. Shanti Parvan is the largest parvan (chapter) of the Mahabharata.

The Aryan and the Vedic Age Original Home and Identity • The location of the original homeland of the Aryans is still controversial but the most accepted theory is that they migrated from Central Asia in several groups between

2000 and 1500 BC and settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modern Pakistan, Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh. Original Home of Aryans Arctic Region

B.G. Tilak

Central India

Rajbali Pandey

Kashmir

L.D. Kala

Central Asia

Max Muller

Tibet

Dayanand Saraswati

German plain

Professor Penka

Pamirs

Mayor

Steppes

Brandstein

Turkistan

Hurz Feld

Bactria

J.C. Rod

Sapta Sindhu

A.C. Das

RigVedic/Early Vedic Period (1500–1000 BC) Geographical Area • Rigveda is the only source of knowledge for this period. • Rigveda mentions 40 rivers. • Early Vedic people had knowledge of rivers Yamuna, Saraswati (Nandi tara) and Ganga, Ocean mentioned as Samudra (referred to collection of water and not sea), snow mountains (Himvat) and desert land (Dhawa). So, they lived in Sapta Sindhu region. • Aryans came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called Dasas (early branch of Aryans) and Dasyus (original inhabitants). Dasyuhatya or slaughter of Dasyus is repeatedly mentioned in Rigveda. • According to the Rigveda, the most mentioned river is Sindhu, the most pious river is Saraswati while mention of the Ganges and occurs just once. Rivers Mentioned in Rigveda Rigvedic Name

Modern Name

Sindhu

Indus

Vitasta

Jhelum

Askini

Chenab

Purushni

Ravi

Indian History Vipas Sutudri Gumal Krumu Drishdvati Kubha Suvastu

Beas Satluj Gomati Kurram Ghagghar Kabul Swat

The Dasrajan War (The Battle of Ten Kings)

• According to Rigveda, the famous Dasrajan war was the internecine war of the Aryans. The Dasrajan war gives names of ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was Bharata king from the Tritsus family. The battle was fought on the bank of Parushni (Ravi) in which Sudas emerged victorious. • The Kula (family) was the basis of both social and political organisations. • Regarding the form of government, it was of patriarchal nature. Monarchy was normal, but non-monarchical politics was also there. • The Purohita or domestic priest was the first ranking official. He was the king’s preceptor, friend, philosopher and guide. • The army consisted of foot-soldiers and charioteers. • The king had religious duties also. He was the upholder of the established order and moral rules. • Rigveda speaks of assemblies, such as the Sabha, Samiti, Vidath and Gana. • Sabha was committee of few privileged and important individuals. Two popular assemblies, Sabha and Samiti, acted as checks on the arbitrary rule of kings. Later Vedas record that the Sabha functioned as a court of justice. Words Mentioned in Rigveda Words Indra Agni Varuna

No. of Times Mentioned 250 200 30

Som

114

Jana

275

Vish Krishi Gau Mitra

170 24 176 1

Samiti

9

Ashwa

215

Sury

10

Yava

15

Brahmana Kshatriya

14 9

Sudra

1

Ganga

2

Yamuna

3

Sabha Vidata Veshya

8 122 1

Arya

33

Gana

46

Society

17

• The Rig-vedic society comprised four varnas, namely Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. This classification of society was based on the professions or occupations of the individuals. • These vocations were followed by people according to their ability and liking, and the occupations had not become hereditary as they became later on. • Child marriage was not in vogue. • A widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband (Niyoga). • The father’s property was inherited by son. • Right to property existed in respect of movable things, like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and also in respect of immovable property like land and house. • Milk and its products–curd, butter and ghee–formed an important part of the diet. • The meat of fish, birds and animals was eaten. • The cow was already deemed Aghanya, i.e. not to be killed. • Rigveda prescribes a penalty of death or expulsion from the kingdom to those who kill or injure cows.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Aryans were primarily agricultural and pastoral people who reckoned their wealth in terms of cows. • Alcoholic drinks, Sura and Soma were also consumed.

Surya

Similar to that of the Greek God, Helios.

Savitri

The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri.

Pusan

Lord of jungle pathi, the main function was that of guarding of roads, herdsmen and cattle.

Vishnu

A relatively minor God at that time.

Vayu

Wind God.

Dyaus

Father of Heaven.

Aditi

Goddess of Eternity.

Maruts

Storm spirits.

Gandharvas

Divine musicians.

Ashvins

Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art.

Ribhus

Gnomes.

Apsaras

Mistresses of Gods.

Rudra

An archer of God, whose anger brought disease.

Vishvadeva

Intermediate deities.

Aranyani

Goddess of Forest.

Usha

Goddess of Dawn.

Prithvi

Goddess of Earth.

Religion

• During the Rigvedic time, the gods worshipped were generally the personified powers of nature. • Indra, Agni and Varuna were the most popular deities of Rigvedic Aryans. • Indra or Purandara (destroyer of fort) was considered to be the rain god. • Agni: The second most important god, fire god was considered to be the intermediary between the gods and the people. • V a r u n a : P e r s o n i f i e d w a t e r w a s supposed to uphold Rita or the natural order (Ritasyagopa). • Savitri (the god of light): The famous Gayatri Mantra is addressed to her. • Sometimes gods were visualised as animals but there was no animal worship. • The nature of Rigvedic religion was Henotheism, i.e. a belief in many gods but each god standing out in turns as the highest. Rigvedic Gods Indra

He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. He was associated with thunder and storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa, Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam.

Agni

He was the second-important divinity. He was intermediary between Gods and men.

Varuna

He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He personified water.

Soma

He was considered to be the God of plants. An intoxicant drink was also called soma.

Yama

He was the guardian of the world of dead.

• Their religion primarily consisted of the worship of gods with a simple ceremony known as Yajna or sacrifice. Sacrifices consisted of offerings of milk, ghee, grain, flesh and soma.

Economy

• Aryans followed a mixed economy, both agriculture and pastoralism. • They possessed better knowledge in agriculture. Ploughshare is mentioned in Rigveda. • The reference of cow in the Rigveda shows that Rigvedic Aryans were predominantly pastoral people. The term for war in the Rigveda is Gavishthi or search for cows. The horse was almost as important as cow. • Cow was the standard unit of exchange. Gold coins like Niskka, Krishna and Satmana were also in use. Godhuli was used as a measure of time and Gavyuti as a measure of distance.

Indian History

• The Vedic people were probably not familiar with cat and camel. Tiger was not known, but the wild animals like lion, elephant and boar were known to them. • The art of healing wounds and curing diseases were in existence. Metals Known in Rigvedic Period Gold Iron Copper

Hiranya Shyama (Krishna Ayas) Ayas

Later Vedic Period (1000 BC-600 BC) Geographical Area

• Later Vedic literatures mention Vindhya Mountain (Southern mountain). • With reference to the territorial divisions, the later Vedas give three broad divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhyadesa (Central India) and Dakshinapath (Southern India).

Polity

• The term ‘Rashtra’, indicating territory, first appeared in this period. • There was development of judiciary. Kings administered the criminal court. Treason was a capital offence. • Large kingdoms and stately cities made their appearance in the later Vedic period. • In Taittariya Brahmana, we notice the theory of the divine origin of kingships. • New civil functionaries besides the only civil functionary of the Rig-vedic period, the Purohita came into existence. Regions and Kings Eastern King

Samrat

Western King

Suvrat

Northern King

Virat

Southern King

Bhoja

King of middle country

Raja

• The popular control over the affairs of the kingdom was exercised through Sabha and Samiti as in the Rigvedic period.

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• Even during the later Vedic times, kings did not possess a standing army. Important officers in Later Vedic Period Purohita

Chief Priest

Senani

Supreme Commander of Army

Vrajapati

Officer in charge of Pasture land

Jivagribha

Police Officer

Spasas

Dutas

Gramani

Head of village

Kulapati

Head of family

Madhyamasi

Judge

Bhagadugha

Revenue Collector

Sangrahitri

Treasurer

Mahishi

Chief Queen

Suta

Charioteer

Govikartana

Head of Forest Department

Palagala

Messenger

Akshavapa

Accountant

Sthapati

Chief Justice

Takshan

Carpenter

Society

• Judiciary also grew. The king played a great role in administering criminal law. • As the time passed by, Yajnas became elaborate and complicated ceremonials leading to the emergence of learned men known as Brahmanas. • And as the Aryans expanded to the east and south, group of people known as Kshatriyas emerged to conquer territories and administer them. The remaining Aryans formed a separate class known as Vaishyas, a word derived from Vis meaning ‘people’. • The non-Aryan formed the fourth class known as Shudras. • The institution of Gotra, i.e. the clan appeared in the later Vedic period. • The higher castes could marry with the lower ones, but marriage with Shudras was not permitted. The concept of pollution started appearing in the society. • The status of women declined. • According to Maitrayani Samhita, there are three evils–liquor, woman and dice.

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• Women were prohibited to attend the political assemblies. • Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue (Vrihad­ aranyaka Upanishada) indicates that some women had got higher education.

Types of Marriage

i. Brahma: Marriage of a girl to a man of the same class with proper dowry. ii. Daiva: The father gives a daughter to a sacrificial priest as a part of his fee. iii. Arsa: A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given in place of dowry. iv. Prajapatya: The father gives the girl without dowry and without demanding the bride-price. v. Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of the two parties (love marriage). vi. Asura: Marriage in which the bride was bought from her father. It was looked down upon with disfavour by all sacred texts, though Arthashastra allows it without criticism. vii. Rakshasa: Marriage with the daughter of a defeated king-practised especially by warriors or marriage with a captured girl. viii. Paishacha: Marriage to a girl after seducing or raping her Anuloma Vivaha: Marriage between a man from an upper caste and a girl from a lower caste. Pratiloma Vivaha: Marriage between a girl from an upper caste and a man from a lower caste.

Religion

• The earlier divinities Indra and Agni were relegated into the background while Prajapati (creator of the Universe, later known as Brahma), Vishnu (Patron god of Aryans) and Rudra (God of animals later identified with Shiva/Mahesha) rose in prominence. Now Prajapati became supreme God. • Pushana became the God of Shudras. • Vrihadaranyaka Upanishad was the first work to give the doctrine of transmigration (Punarjanma/Sansara-chakra) and deeds (karma).

• In the later Vedas and Brahamanas, sacrifices (Yajnas) came into prominence. • There were two varieties of sacrifices: i. Laghuyajnas (simple sacrifices): Performed by householders. ii. Mahayajnas (grand sacrifices): Sacrifices that could only be undertaken by an aristocratic and wealthy man and the king. • Towards the end of the Vedic period, there was the emergence of a strong reaction against cults, rituals and priestly domination; reflection of the mood is found in the Upanishads.

16 Sanskaras

1. Garbhadhana, 3. Simantonnyan, 5. Namakaran, 7. Annaprashana, 9. Karnachhedana, 11. Upanayana, 13. Samavaratana, 15. Vanaprastha,

2. Pumsavana, 4. Jatakarma, 6. Nishkramana, 8. Chudakarma, 10. Vidyarmbha, 12. Vedarambha, 14. Vivaha, 16. Antyesti.

Economy

• Agriculture began to replace rearing of cattle. Manure was known. • Rice, barley, beans, sesame and wheat were cultivated. • Mention of tin, silver and iron was made apart from gold and ayas (either copper or iron) in the Rigveda. • New occupational group emerged, such as fishermen, washermen, dyers, doorkeepers and footmen. • Evidence was there regarding organisation of merchants into guilds because of reference to corporations (Ganas) and aldermen (Sreshtins).

Important vedic rituals

• Asvamedha: A King performed this sacrifice which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days in the end of which the horse sacrifice was performed. The Aswamedha sacrifice concluded with the sacrifice of 21 sterile cows.

Indian History

• Vajapeya: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race. It was meant to re-esatablish the supermacy of the king over his people. • Rajasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the King. • Ratnahavimsi: A part of Rajasuya ceremony where different royal officials invoked different gods and goddesses. • Upanayana: An initiation ceremony to confer dvija status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year. • Paumasayam: A ceremony to produce a male child.

Mahajanapada Period (600 BC-325 BC) Pre-Mauryan Age

• Many janapadas sprung up in the 6th century BC, the larger of which were called Mahajanapadas. • Buddhist literature (Anguttara Nikaya, Mahavastu) and Jain literature (Bhagavati Sutra) present a list of 16 Mahajanapadas with minor variations of names. They were of two types: ƒƒ Non-monarchial/republican states: Kamboj, Kuru, Koliyas (Ramgrama), Malla, Moriya (Pipplivana), Shakya (Kapilvastu), Vajji (Panchal), Lichchhavis (Vaishali), Bhaggas (Sumsumasa), Kalamas (Kesaputta), Videhas (Mithila) and Jnatrikas (Kundalgrama). ƒƒ Monarchial States: Anga, Avanti, Chedi, Kashi, Kosala, Gandharva, Magadha, Matsya, Sursena, Vatsa.

The Republican States

• The republicans, unlike the monarchies, were ruled by tribal oligarchies and Brahmanas had no place. • Lichchhavis are said to be the oldest republicans in the world. The Mahajanapadas Mahajanapadas

Capitals

Matsya

Virat Nagari

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Kamboja

Rajput

Vajjis

Vaishali

Asmaka

Patna

Anga

Champa

Vatsa

Kaushambi

Kashi

Banaras

Avanti (North/South)

Ujjain/Mahishmati

Kosala

Sravasti

Shurasena

Mathura

Magadha

Girivraja

Chedi

Shuktimati

Panchala (North/South)

Ahichhatra/Kampilya

Malla

Kushinara

Kurus

Indraprastha

Gandhara

Taxila

Magadha Empire • The period from 6th century BC to 4th century BC saw the struggle for supremacy among four mahajanapadas–Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti. • Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India. • The founder of Magadha was Jarasandha and Brihadratha.

Rise of Magadha

• The political history of India from 6th century BC onwards is the history of struggle between four states–Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti–for supremacy. • Ultimately, the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the most powerful one and succeed in founding an empire.

Causes of Magadha’s Success

i. Magadha enjoyed an advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because the richest iron deposits were situated not far away from Rajir, the earliest capital of Magadha and could be used for making weapons. ii. Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plains. The alluvium, once

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cleared of the jungles, proved immense fertile and food surplus was thus available. iii. Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organisations. Although the Indian states were well acquainted with the use of horses and chariots, it was Magadha who first used elephants on a large scale in its war against its neighbours.

Haryanaka Dynasty (544 BC-412 BC) Bimbisara (Shronika) (544 BC-492 BC)

• He was the founder of Haryanaka dynasty with capital Rajagriha. • Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara. • He was a contemporary of Gautama Buddha. • He married the princesses of Kosala (Kosaldevi/Mahakosala, sister of Kosal King Prasenjit), Lichchhavi (Chellana, sister of Lichchhavi Head Chetaka) and Madra (Khema, daughter of Madra King), which helped him in his expansionist policy. • He gained a part of Kashi as the dowry in his marriage with the sister of king Prasenjit of Kosala. • He conquered Anga. • The Gandhara ruler of Taxila, Pukku Sati sent an embassy to Bimbisara. • Known as Seniya, he was the first Indian king who had a regular and standing army. • He built the city of New Rajagriha.

Ajatashatru (492 BC-460 BC)

• He was son of Chellana and Bimbisara. • Gained complete control over Kashi. • He defeated Vajji confederacy and divided it with the help of Vassakar. • He defeated his maternal uncle Prasenjit, king of Kosala and married his daughter Vajira. • He destroyed Vaishali (capital of Lichchhavis). • Mahashilakantaka–A war, engaging in which catapulted a big stone and Rathamusala, a kind of chari with a mace.

• He fortified Rajagriha to meet the threat from Avanti. He also built the fort of Rajagriha and Jaladurga (a watch fort) at Patali village on the bank of river Ganges. • He patronised first Buddhist Council and Buddha died during his reign.

Udayin (460 BC-440 BC)

• Ajatshatru was succeeded by his son Udayin. • His reign is important because he laid the foundations of the city of Patliputra at the confluence of the Sone and the Ganges and shifted the capital from Rajagriha to Patliputra. • Udayin was succeeded by Anuruddha, Munda and Naga-Dasak, respectively who all were weak and parricides.

Shishunaga Dynasty (413 BC-344 BC) • Naga-Dasak was unworthy to rule. So the people got disgusted and elected Shishunaga as the king, the minister of the last king. • The most important achievement of Shishunaga was the destruction of the Pradyota dynasty of Avanti. From then on, Avanti became a part of the Magadha rule. • The most famous event was that the capital was shifted to Vaishali.

Kalasoka

• He succeeded Shishunaga in 344 Bc. • He transferred the capital from Vaishali to Patliputra and convened the second Buddhist Council in Vaishali (383 BC). • Mandivardhana was the last ruler of this dynasty.

Nanda Dynasty (344 BC-323 BC) Mahapadmananda

• The Shishunaga dynasty was overthrown by Mahapadma who established a new line of kings known as the Nandas. • It is considered to be the first non-Kshatriya dynasty and ruled for 100 years.

Indian History

• Mahapadma is known as Sarvashatrantak, i.e., uprooter of all the Kshatriyas (Puranas) and Ugrasena, i.e., owner of huge army (Pali texts). • The Puranas call Mahapadma Ekrat, i.e., the sole monarch. He is often described as “the first empire builder of Indian history”. • He conquered Kosala and Kalinga (from here he brought an image of the Jina as victory trophy). • Succeeded by his eighth sons, last one being Dhanananda.

Dhanananda

• The last king Dhanananda is possibly identical with the Agrammes or Xandrames of the Greek texts. • It was during the rule of Dhanananda that the invasion of Alexander took place in north-west India in 326 BC. • It was the might of Dhanananda that terrorised Alexander and stopped his march to the Gangetic Valley. • The Nanda dynasty came to an end about 322–21 BC and was supplanted by another dynasty known as Mauryas, with Chandragupta Maurya as the founder.

Foreign Invasions Iranian and Macedonian Invasions

• Cyrus of Persia was the first foreign conqueror who penetrated well into India. He enrolled the Indian soldiers in the Persian Army. • Darius-I, grandson of Cyrus invaded northWest India (516 BC) and annexed Punjab, west of Indus and Sind.

Impact of Iranian Invasion

• Iranian contact gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian trade. • There was cultural exchange in the form of Kharoshthi script from Iran to India. Some of Ashoka’s inscriptions in North-West India were written in this script. • Iranian influence is perceptible in sculpture, e.g., the bell-shaped capitals.

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Alexander’s Invasion

• Alexander, from Iran, marched towards India attracted by its great wealth and divided polity. • Alexander conquered Kabul in 328 BC. He moved to India through the unguarded Khyber Pass and reached Sirhind near Attock in 326 BC. • Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, readily submitted to Alexander. • Porus: Alexander defeated Porus in the Battle of Hydaspes on the bank of river Vitasta (Jhelum). He restored to Porus his kingdom and made him his ally. • After the Battle of Sakala, Alexander proceeded upto Beas with a view to conquer the East, but his fatigued army refused to cross the river. • So, he was forced to retreat. He placed the North-Western India under the Greek Governor Seleucus Nicator. • Died in Babylon (323 BC) at the age of 33 years.

Effects of Alexander’s Invasion

1. India and Europe: It brought both of them closer to each other. 2. Invasion made possible the establish­ ment of Indo-Bactrian and IndoParthian States. 3. The invasion opened the eyes of Indian politicians to the necessity of creating a unified empire. 4. The date of the invasion of Alexander is the ‘first reliable date in early Indian history’ and considerably helps us in solving chronological difficulties.

Religious Movements (600 BC-400 BC) Causes of Religious Movements

1. The Vedic philosophy had lost its original purity. 2. The Vedic religion had become very complex and had degenerated into superstitions, dogmas and rituals. 3. Supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest in the society and Kshatriyas reacted against the Brahmanical domination.

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4. Introduction of a new agricultural economy in Eastern India. 5. The desire of Vaishyas to improve their social position with the increase in their economic position due to the growth of trade. ƒƒ Division of the society into four varnas. ƒƒ To preserve cattle wealth. ƒƒ Desire to go back to simple life. The use of Sanskrit in Vedic texts was not understandable to the masses.

Buddhism: Buddha’s Life

• Gautama Buddha, founder of Buddhism, was born in 563 BC (widely accepted), on the Vaishakha Purnima day at Lumbinivana in Kapilvastu (now situated in the foothills of Nepal) in the Sakya Kshatriya clan. • His father Suddhodhana was the republican king of Kapilvastu and mother Mahamaya was a princess of Kosala dynasty. Major Events of Buddha’s Life Events

Symbols

Janma (Birth)

Lotus and Bull

Mahabhinishkramana (Renunciation)

Horse

Nirvana (Sambodhi Enlightenment)

Bodhi tree

Dharmachakra Paravartan First Sermon

Wheel

Mahaparinirvana (Death)

Stupa

• After his mother’s early death, he was brought up by his stepmother and aunt Mahaprajapati Gautami. • His father married him at an early age to Yosodhara (princess of Kolli dynasty) from whom he had a son Rahul. • Four sights–an old man, a diseased person, a dead body and an ascetic–proved to be a turning point in his career. • At the age of 29, he renounced home, this was his Mahabhiniskramana. • His first teacher was Alara Kalam from whom he learnt the technique of meditation. • His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. • At the age of 35, under a peepal tree at Uruvell (Bodh Gaya) on the bank of river

Niranjana (modern name Falgu), he attained Nirvana (enlightenment) after 49 days of continuous meditation; now he was a fully enlightened (Buddha or Tathagat). • Buddha delivered his first sermon at Sarnath (deer park) to his five disciples. This is known as Dharmachaka Pravartana (turning of the wheel of law). • He died at the age of 80 in 483 BC at Kushinagar (identical with the village Kasia is Siddharthanagar Japanaa of Deoria district of U.P.). This is known as Mahaparinirvana (final blowing out).

Teachings of Buddha

(a) His four Noble Truths: 1. The world is full of sorrows. 2. The cause of sorrow is desire, Dwadash Nidan/Pratitya Samutpada. 3. If desires are conquered, all sorrows can be removed, Nirvana. 4. This can be achieved by following the eight-fold path, Ashtangika Marga. (b) Eight-fold Path: (Ashtangika marga) • Right understanding • Right thought • Right speech • Right action • Right livelihood • Right effort • Right mindfulness • Right concentration. (c) Three Jewels (Triratnas): • Buddha • Dhamma • Sangha (d) Belief in Nirvana: • Also known as moksha or salvation. It refers to belief in the concept of ultimate bliss, where by the person gets freedom from the cycle of birth and death. (e) Belief in Ahimsa: • Law of Karma and Madhya Marga/ Madhyama Pratipada (the middle path). • Note: Pratitya Samutapada is also known as Hetuvada (theory of causeeffect) and Kshana-bhanga Vada (theory of momentariness impermanence).

Indian History

(f) Code of conduct: • Do not covet the property of others. • Do not commit violence. • Do not use intoxicants. • Do not speak a lie. • Do not indulge in corrupt practices.

• Vajrayana: (i) Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring the magical power, which they called Vajra. (ii) The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras. (iii) It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.

Sacred Shrines

Buddhist Sangha

• It consisted of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns, who acted as a torchbearer of the dhamma. The worshippers were called upasakas. Buddhist Councils Councils

Year

Venue

Chairman

First

483 BC

Rajgriha

Mahakassaapa

Second

383 BC

Vaishali

Sabakami

Third

250 BC

Patliputra

Mogaliputta Tissa

Fourth

72 AD

Kundalvan

Vasumitra

Buddhist Scriptures

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• Tripitakas • Vinay Pitaka consist rules of monastic discipline for monks. • Sutta Pitaka is the collection of Buddha’s sermons. • Abhidhama Pitaka is the philosophy of Buddha’s teachings. • Milindapanho (i.e. Questions of Milinda)–a dialogue between Milinda (identical with Indo-Greek ruler Menander) and Buddhist saint Nagasena. • Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha–The great chronicles of Sri Lanka. • Sects of Buddhism: Hinayana (i.e. Lesser Vehicle): (i) Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha. (ii) They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation. (iii) They did not believe in idol-worship. (iv) They favoured Sanskrit language. (v) It is known as Northern Buddhist Religion, because it prevailed in the North of India, e.g., China, Korea, Japan, etc. (vi) There were two subsects of Mahayana-Madhayamika/Shunyavada (founder-Nagarjuna) and Yogachar/ Vijanavada (founder-Maitreyanath and his disciple Asanga).

• L u m b i n i , B o d h G a y a , S a r n a t h a n d Kushinagar, where the four principal events of the Buddha’s life, namely Birth, Enlightenment, First sermon and Death took place. To these are added four places, Sravasti, Rajgriha, Vaishali and Sankasya–these eight places have all long been considered as the eight holy places (Ashtasthanas). • Other centres of Buddhism in Ancient India– Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh; Nalanda in Bihar; Junagadh and Vallabhi in Gujarat; Sanchi and Bharhut in M.P.; Ajanta-Ellora in Maharashtra; Dhaulagiri in Orissa; Kannauj, Kaushambi and Mathura in U.P. and Jagadala and Somapuri in West Bengal. i. Stupa–relics of the Buddha or some prominent Buddhist monks are preserved. ii. Vihara–residence.

Royal Patrons

• Bimbisara and Ajatshatru (Magadhan ruler), Prasenjit (Kosala ruler), Udayan (Vatsa ruler), Pradyota (Avanti ruler), Ashoka and Dasharatha (Mauryan ruler), Milinda/Menander (Indo-Greek ruler), Kanishka (Kushana ruler), Harshavardhana (Vardhana ruler); Gopala, Dharampala and Rampala (Pala rulers). Notes: i. Ashoka, the greatest patron of Buddhism, called 3rd Buddhist Council and sent mission comprising his son Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka. ii. Kanishka called 4th Buddhist Council and sent mission to China, Korea and Japan. iii. Palas of Bengal and Bihar were the last great patrons of Buddhism.

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General Knowledge  2020

Causes for the Decline of Buddhism

• Incorporation of rituals and ceremonies, it originally denounced. • R efo rm i n B ra hma ni sm a nd ri se o f Bhagavatism. • Buddhists took up the use of Sanskrit (earlier Pali), started practising idol worship, receiving offerings and huge donation.

Some Famous Buddhist Scholars

• A s h v a g h o s h a , N a g a r j u n a , A s a n g a , Vasubandhu, Buddhaghosha, Dinnaga and Harmakirti. • Buddhist Architecture: Buddhism takes the credit for first human statues to be worshipped. • Stone pillars depicting the life of Buddha are at Gaya, Sanchi and Barhut. • Gandhara art and the beautiful images of the Buddha. • Gaya architecture in the Barahat hills at Gaya and in the Western India around Nashik. • Art pieces of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda. • Stupa relics of Buddha or some prominent monks. Buddhist Universities Buddhist University

Location

Founder

Nalanda

Badagaon

Kumargupta I

Vikramshila

Bhagalpur

Dharmapala

Somapuri

North Bengal

Dharmapala

Jagadai

Bengal

Ramapala

Odantpuri

Bihar Sharif

Gopala

Vallabhi

Gujarat

Bhattark

Jainism

• It was founded by Rishabhnath. • According to Jain tradition, there were 24 Tirthankaras (literally Ford makers, across the stream of existence), the first being Rishabhadeva/Adinatha and the last being Mahavira. • The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an incarnation of Narayana.

• The name of two Jain Tirthankaras– Rishabha and Arishtanemi are found in the Rigveda. • Parshvnath: His four main teachings (Chaturthi) were: 1. Ahimsa (non-injury); 2. Satya (non-lying); 3. Asteya (non-stealing); 4. Aparigraha (non-possession). Mahavira adopted all these four teachings and added one more, i.e., Brahmacharya (chastity) to it.

Jain Tirthankaras

1. Rishabhdev 2. Ajitnath 3. Sambhavnath 4. Abhinandan 5. Sumitnath 6. Padmaprabhu 7. Suparsavanath 8. Suridhi 9. Chandraprabh 10. Sheetal Nath 11. Shreyanshanath 12. Vasupujya

Mahavira’s Life

13. Vimalnath 14. Anandanath 15. Dharmanath 16. Shantinath 17. Kunthunath 18. Arnath 19. Mallinath 20. Munisuvratanath 21. Neminath 22. Arishtanemi 23. Parshvanath 24. Mahavira

• Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village named Kundgrama near Vaishali in Bihar. • His father Siddhartha was the head of the Jnathrika Kshatriya clan under Vajji of Vaishali and his mother Trishala was the sister of Chetaka, the king of Vaishali. Mahavira was also related to Bimbisara. • Mahavira was married to Yashoda (daughter of Samaravira king) and a daughter Anonja Priyadarshini, whose husband Jamali became the first disciple of Mahavira. • At the age of 30, he renounced his family, became an ascetic and proceeded in search of truth. He was accompanied by Makkhali Gosala, but, later, due to some differences, Gosala left him and founded Ajivika sect. • At the age of 42, under a sal tree at Jambhikagrama on the bank of river Rijupalika, Mahavira attained Kaivalya (supreme knowledge). • F r o m t h e n o n w a r d s , h e w a s c a l l e d Kevalin Jina or Jitendriya Nrigranatha, Arihant Mahavira.

Indian History

• He delivered his first sermon at Pava. • At the Age of 72 in 468 BC, he passed away at Pavapuri near Bihar Sharif in Bihar.

Teachings of Mahavira

• Rejected the authority of Vedas and did not believe in existence of God. • He believed that every object possesses a soul. So he professed strict non-violence. • Attainment of salvation by believing in penance and dying of starvation. • Universal brotherhood (equality) and nonbelief in caste system. • He believed in karma and transmigration of soul.

Doctrines of Jainism

• Triratnas, i.e., Three Gems of Jainism 1. Samyak Shradha/Vishwas (right faith): It is the belief in Tirthankaras. 2. Samyak Gyan (right knowledge): It is the knowledge of the Jain creed. 3. Samyak Karma/Acharana (right action/conduct): It is the practice of the five vows of Jainism. • • • • •

Five Carinal Principles Non-injury (Ahimsa). Non-lying (Satya). Non-stealing (Asteya). Non-possession (Aparigraha). Observing continence (Brahmacharya).

• Mahavrata monks, who observed five principles. • Anuvratas lay members, who observed five principles. The first four principles were given by Parshvnath while fifth was added by Lord Mahavira. • • • • •

Five Instruments of Knowledge Mati jnana Avadhi jnana Shruta jnana Manahparyaya jnana Keval jnana

Jain Philosophy

• S y a d a v a d a – A l l o u r j u d g e m e n t s a r e necessarily relative, conditional and limited.

27

• Anekantavada–Doctrine of merriness of reality.

Jain Literature

• The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a type of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi Prakrit. • The important Jain texts are: (i) Kalpasutra (in Sanskrit)–Bhadrabahu, (ii) Bhadrabahu Charita, (iii) Parishishta Parvan (an appendix of Trishashthi-shalaka Purush) –Hemchandra.

Sacred Literature

• The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit called Ardhamagadhi, and may be classified as follows: (a) The twelve Angas (b) The twelve Upangas (c) The ten Parikarnas (d) The six Chhedasutras (e) The four Mulasutras.

Sects of Jainism

• After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jain monk from Ganga valley to the Deccan. This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. • Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity, which Mahavira had established for the Digambaras. • Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monk, who remained in the North allowed his followers to wear white garments–Svetambaras.

Jain Councils

• First Jain council was held at Pataliputra in the fourth century BC under the leadership of Stulabahu. • Second Jain council was at Vallabhi in Gujarat in third century under the leadership of Aryaskandil Nagarjuna Suri. • Third Jain council was held at Vallabhi in 5th century A.D. under the leadership of Devardhi Kshama Sramana.

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General Knowledge  2020

and Samprati (Mauryan) Magadha. 2. Pradyota (Avanti). 3. Udayan (Sindhu• Extreme observance of ahimsa, penance Sauvira). 4 Kharavela (Kalinga). and austerity. II. S ou th In dia: 1. Ganga Dynasty. • No patronage from later kings. 2. Kadamb Dynasty. 3.Amoghavarsha • The Jains did not make any efforts to spread (Rashtrakuta Dynasty). 4. Sidharaj their religion. Jai Singh and Kumarpal (Chalukya/ Solanki) were the last great patrons Examples of Jain Architecture: of Jainism.

Causes behind the Decline of Jainism

• Guphas, i.e. caves • Dilwara temples • Statue of Gomateshwar/Bahubali– Shravanbelagola (Karnataka).

Royal Patrons

I. North India: 1. Nandas: Bimbisar, Ajatshatru and Udayin (Haryank), Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara

Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism

• Both opposed Brahmanical domination and caste system, but upheld the essence of Vedas, preached truth, non-violence, celibacy and detachment from material comforts, believed in karma and rebirth and were liberal towards women.

Other Heterodox Sects Sect

Founder

Theory

Ajivikas

Gosala Maskariputra

Believed in Faith called ‘Niyati’

Amoralism

Purana Kassapa

Sankhya Philosophy

Lokayata or Charvaka School

Ajita Keshakambalin

Uchchedavada annihilationism

Hindu Vaisheshika School

Pakudha Katccayana

Sorrow, happiness and life are indestructible like Earth, water etc.

Maurya Period (322 BC-185 BC) Sources for Mauryan History 1. Literary Sources • Kautilya’s Arthashastra: It is a treatise on government and polity. • Indica of Megasthenes: Socio-economic and administrative structure under Mauryas. • Vishakha Datta’s Mudra-rakshasa: It describes how Chandragupta Maurya got Chanakya’s assistance to overthrow the Nandas. Besides this, it gives an excellent account of the prevailing socio-economic conditions. • Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan chronicles): Ashoka’s role in spreading of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. • Jataka’s socio-economic conditions of Mauryan period.

• Sthaviravali Charita or Parishishthaparvan of Hemachandra (a biography of Chanakya) • Chandragupta’s conversion to Jainism. • Puranas give us the chronology and lists of Mauryan kings. • Buddhist Literature: 1. Indian Buddhist text Jatakas reveal a general picture of socio-economic conditions. 2. Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa describe the part played by Ashoka in spreading Buddhism to Sri Lanka. 3. Tibetan Buddhist text Divyavadana gives information about Ashoka and his efforts to spread Buddhism. 2. Archaeological Sources • Ashoka’s edicts and inscriptions: Their importance came to be appreciated only after their decipheration by James Pricep in 1837. Though Prakrit was the language used in them, the script varied from region to region (Kharosthi in the North-west, Greek

Indian History

and Aramaic in the West and Brahmi in the East of India). • Other inscriptions: Junagadh Rock Inscri­ ption of Rudradaman, Sohgaura Copper Plate Inscription in the Gorakhpur district of U.P.

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3. Epigraphical Evidences • Ashoka’s edicts were first deciphered by James Princep in 1837. It was written in Prakrit language and three scripts, viz. Kharoshthi in North-west, Greek and Aramaic in the West and Brahmi in the East of India.

Various Edicts of Mauryan Age Edict

Content

Location

A  Rock Edicts • 14 Major Rock Edicts

Ashoka’s Principle of government and policy of Dharma.

Kalsi (Dehradun) Girnar (Gujarat Yerragudi) (Andhra Pradesh), Mansehra (Pakistan) Sopara (Bombay), Dhauli and Jaugada (Odisha) Shahbazgarhi Pakistan

• Two Seperate Kalinga Edicts

Kalinga war and new system of administration after war (All men are my children-Dhauli)

Dhauli or Tosali, and Jaugada (Odisha)

• Minor Rock Edicts

Personal history of Ashoka and summary of his Dharma

South and central Parts of the empire

B. Pillar Edicts • 7 Pillar Edicts

Appendix of the Rock Edicts

Delhi-Topra, Delhi-Meerut, Rampurva, Lauriya-Araraj, Lauriya-Nandangarh and Allahabad-Kosam

Origin of the Mauryas

• The Puranas describe them as Shudras. • Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadatta uses the terms Vaishali Kulthina (of low). • T h e J u n a g a d h R o c k I n s c r i p t i o n o f Rudradaman (150 AD) suggesting that the Mauryas might have been of Vaishya origin. • The Buddhist work, on the other hand, tries to link the Mauryan dynasty with the Sakya Kshatriya clan to which Buddha belonged. • In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas belonged to the Moriya tribe.

Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC-298 BC)

• Also called Sandrocottus/Androcottus by the Greek scholars. • He entered into alliance with Pravartaka and with the help of Chanakya, he dethroned the last Nanda ruler Dhanananda and founded the Mauryan dynasty with capital at Patliputra.

• Chandragupta defeated Seleucus I Nicator, the general of Alexa nder in North-West India in 305 BC. • Seleucus sent a Greek Ambassador, Megasthenes, to the court of Chandragupta Maurya. • Chandragupta embraced Jainism and went to Chandragiri Hill, at Shravanbelagola with Bhadrabahu, where he died of slow starvation (Salekhan). • Chandragupta was the first Indian ruler to unite the whole North India. • In 305 BC, Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleucus Nikator, who surrendered a vast territory.

Bindusara (298 BC-273 BC)

• Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by his son Bindusara. • Bindusara was known to the Greeks as Amitrochates.

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• Bindusara asked Antiochus I of Syria to send some sweet wine, and said that Greek philosophers are not for sale. • He extended the kingdom further to the peninsular region of India as far south as Mysore. • Antiochus I, the Seleucid king of Syria, sent his Ambassador, Deimachus, to his court. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysus as his Ambassador to the court of Bindusara. • Bindusara patronised Ajivikas.

Ashoka (273 BC-232 BC)

• He was the greatest Mauryan ruler; Governor of Taxila and Ujjain previously. His rule extended to the whole of sub-continent except extreme south. It also included Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Kashmir and valleys of Nepal. • According to Buddhist tradition, Ashoka usurped the throne after killing his 99 brothers and spared Tissa, the youngest one. • Ashoka had himself formally crowned in 269 BC. • Under Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire reached its climax. For the first time, the whole of the sub-continent, leaving out the extreme south, was under imperial control. • Ashoka fought the Kalinga War in 261 BC in the 9th year of his coronation. The king was moved by the massacre in this war and, therefore, abandoned the policy of physical occupation in favour of policy of cultural conquest. In other words, Bherighosa was replaced by Dhammaghosa. • Ashoka was not an extreme pacifist. He retained Kalinga after his conquest and incorporated it into his empire. • He embraced Buddhism under Upagupta. • He sent his son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra to Ceylon as Buddhist missionaries with a sapling of original peepal tree. • He inaugurated Dhamma Yatras from the 11th year of his reign by visiting Bodh Gaya; also appointed Dhamma Mahamatras (officer of righteousness to spread the message of Dhamma).

• Ashoka sent missionaries to the kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas and five states ruled by Greek kings (Antiochus II, Syria; Philadelphus Ptolemy II, Egypt; Antigonus, Macedonia; Magnus, Syria; Alexander, Epirus).

Ashoka’s Dhamma

• Ashoka’s Dhamma cannot be regarded as a sectarian faith. Its broad objective was to preserve the social order it ordained that people should obey their parents, pay respect to Brahmans and Buddhist monks show mercy to slaves and servants.

Later Mauryas (232 BC-185 BC)

• Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the Mauryan Empire into two parts– Western and Eastern. • The Western part came to be ruled by Kunala (son of Ashoka) and the Eastern part came to be ruled by Dasaratha. • The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated in 185 BC by his commanderin-chief, Pushyamitra Sunga. • Causes for the Decline: 1. Highly centralised administration. 2. Pacific policy of Ashoka. 3. Brahmanical reaction. 4. The partition of the Mauryan Empire. 5. Weak later Mauryan rulers. 6. Pressure on Mauryan economy. 7. Neglect of North-West Frontier.

Mauryan Administration 1. Central administration • The Mauryan government was a centralised bureaucracy, of which the nucleus was the king. • The Mantri Parishad: The king was assisted by Mantri Parishad, whose members included: i. The Yuvaraja (the crown prince) ii. The Purohita (the chief priest) iii. The Senapati (the commander-in-chief) and other ministers. Administrative Officers • Nagaraka

Duties The officer-in-charge of the city administration

Indian History • Sitaadhyaksha

Supervised agriculture.

• Panyaadhyaksha

Superintendent of commerce.

• Samsthadhyaksha

Superintendent of market.

• Pauthavadhyaksha Superintendent of

weight and measures.

• Navadhyaksha

Superintendent of ships.

• Sulkadhyaksha

Collector of tolls.

• Akaradhyaksha

Superintendent of mines.

• Lohadhyaksha

Superintendent of iron.

• Amatyas

The Secretaries.

• Sannidhata

Chief treasury officer.

• Samaharta

The collector general of revenue.

Durgapala

Governor of fort.

Antapala

Governor of the frontier.

Akshapatala

Accountant General.

Vachabhumika

Officer-in-charge of the rest houses, groves and wells, etc.

Lipikaras

Scribes.

Dhamma

A new post created by Asoka, empowered with the dual functions of mahamatras propagating Dhamma and taking care of the commonfolk for their material well‑being.

• Prativedikas: Reporters. • Kumaras: The viceroys in-charge of a province. Generally, they were of regular though the exceptions were also there. In order to check the growing power of the viceroys, the provincial ministers were empowered sufficiently. • Pradesikas: They were the modern district magistrates and in-charge of district. They were to make tours once in every 5 years to inspect the entire administration of the areas under control. • Rajukas: They were the later-day Patwaris. They were responsible for surveying and

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assessing the land. In rural areas, they were the judicial officers. • Yukta: A subordinate revenue officer of the district level. He was responsible for the secretarial work of accounting. • Gopa: Responsible for accounts. • Sthanika: The tax-collecting officer directly under the control of the Pradesikas.

Army

• The most striking feature of the Mauryan administration was the maintenance of a huge army. They also maintained a Navy. • In the Mauryan period, there were two types of Gudhapurushas (detectives): Sansthan (stationary) and Sanchari (wandering). • Tax collected from peasants varied from 1/4th to 1/6th of the produce. • The state also provided irrigation facilities (Setubandha) and charged water-tax. • Sohgaura (Gorakhpur district, U.P.): Copper plate inscription and Mahasthana (Bogra district, Bangladesh) inscription deal with the relief measures to be adopted during famine. • Important ports: Bharukachch/Bharuch and Supara (Western coast) Tamralipti in Bengal (English coast). • During Mauryan period, the punch-marked coins (mostly of silver) were the common units of transactions. Provincial Administration Provinces Uttarapatha (North)

Capital Taxila

Avantipatha (West) Prachypatha (South) Central Province

Ujjain Suvarnagiri Pataliputra

Society

• Kautilya’s Arthashastra looked upon the Shudras as an Aryan community. • Reduction of gap between the Vaishyas and the Shudras. • Megasthenes states that the Indian society was divided into 7 classes. • Women occupied a high position and freedom in the Mauryan society. According to Kautilya, women were permitted to have a divorce/remarry. Women were employed as

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personal bodyguards of the king spies and in other diverse jobs.

Mauryan Art

• The Mauryans introduced stone masonry on large scale during Ashoka’s reign. • Fragments of stone pillars and wooden floor and ceiling indicating the existence of an 80–pillared hall have been discovered at Kumhrar at the outskirts of Patna. Seeing this, Fahien remarks as follows: These palaces are so beautiful and excellent that they appear to be the creation of God rather than of men. • Four-lion capital at Sarnath and Sanchi. Lion capital of Sarnath adopted as the National Emblem of India on 26th January, 1950. • Single-lion capital at Rampurva and Lauriya Nandangarh. • Single-bull capital at Rampurva. • A carved elephant at Dhauli and engraved elephant at Kalsi. • The Mauryan artisans, who started the practice of hewing out caves from rocks for monks to live in. The earliest examples are Barbar caves in Gaya (Ashokan). The other examples are Nagarjuni caves in Gaya (Dasharatha).

Significance of Mauryan Rule

• Many Gurukuls and Buddhist monasteries (Taxila and Banaras) developed with royal patronage. • Literary development, e.g., Arthashastra (Kautilya), Kalpasutra (Bhadrabahu), Katha Vastu (Buddhist text), Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Dasavali (Jain text).

Post-Maurya/Pre-Gupta Period (185 BC-319 AD) The Sunga Dynasty (185 BC to 73 BC)

• S u n g a D y n a s t y w a s e s t a b l i s h e d b y Pushyamitra Sunga, a Brahmin Com­ mander-in-Chief of the last Mauryan ruler named Brihadratha in 185 BC. • Pushyamitra was a staunch adherent of orthodox Hinduism. However, the great

• •

• •

• • •

Buddhist stupa at Bharhut (in MP) was built during the reign of Sungas. Pushyamitra Sunga ruled from Vidisha (MP). He defeated Bactrian king, Demetrius and conducted two Ashwamedha Yajnas (chief priest–Patanjali). He is considered to be the persecutor of Buddhism. Pushyamitra was succeeded by his son Agnimitra, the hero of Kalidasa’s drama Malavikagnimitra. Patanjali, author of the Mahabhasya was born at Gonarda in Central India. Patanjali was the priest of two Ashvamedha Yajnas, performed by Pushyamitra Sunga. The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka, was constructed during the Sunga period. The Greek Ambassador Heliodorus visited the court of fifth Sunga king Bhagabhadra and set up a pillar in honour of Lord Vasudeva near Vidisha (MP). The famous book on Hindu law Manusmriti was compiled during this period. Later Kings–Vasumitra, Vajramitra, Bhagabhadra and Devabhuti. Sunga Art–Bharhut Stupa, gateway railing surrounding the Sanchi Stupa built by Ashoka, Vihara, Chaitya and Stupa of Bhaja (Poona), Nasika Chaitya, Amaravati Stupa, etc.

Kanva Dynasty (73 BC-28 BC) • In 73 BC, Devabhuti, the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, was murdered by his minister Vasudeva, who usurped the throne and founded the Kanva dynasty. • Bhumimitra and Narayana succeeded Vasudeva. • The last ruler, Susarman, was killed by Andhra King, Simuka.

Satavahana Dynasty (60 BC-225 AD) Capital-Pratishthan–Paithan (Maharashtra)

• The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and Central India were the Satvahanas.

Indian History

• The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhars, who were mentioned in the Puranas. • Simuka (60 BC-37 BC) was the founder of the Satavahana Dynasty. • Satakarni I, its third ruler, raised its power and prestige by conquests. • Hala was the author of Gathasaptashati or Sattasi in Prakrit. Gunadhya, the author (in Prakrit), was the contemporary of Hala. • Gautamiputra Satakarni revived the Satavahana power and defeated the Saka Ksatrap Snehapana. He was the greatest Satavahana ruler. • Yajna Sri Satakarni was the dynasty’s last great ruler. • Vasishthiputra Sri Satkarni married to daughter Saka Satrap Rudradaman. • Pulamayi III was the last Satavahana ruler succeeded by Ikshavakus in the 3rd century BC. • Satavahanas started the practice of donating land with fiscal and administrative immunities to Brahmanas and Buddhist m o n k s , w h i c h eventua l l y wea k ened their authority. • Under the Satavahanas, many Chaityas (worship halls) and Viharas (monasteries) were cut out from rocks. The famous examples were Nasik, Kanheri and Karle. • S t u p a s : T h e m o s t f a m o u s o f t h e s e attributed to the Satavahana period are Amravati, a sculptural treasure house, and Nagarjunakonda. • The official language of the Satvahanas was Prakrit. Important Aspects of Satavahanas • They issued mostly lead coins. • Satavahanas were the Brahmins. • Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmins. • Stupas at Nagarjunakonda and Amravati in Andhra Pradesh became important seats of Buddhist culture under Satavahanas. • In the Satavahana phase, many Chaityas, e.g., Karla caves in Western Deccan, Nasik and Kanheri and Viharas were cut out of the soiled rock in the NorthWestern Deccan.

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The Cheti Dynasty of Kalinga • The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives information about the Chetis. • Kharavela pushed his kingdom upto Godavari in the south and recovered the Jain image from Magadha. • He was a follower of Jainism. He constructed residential caves for Jain monks on the Udayagiri Hill near Bhubaneswar, Orissa (now Odisha).

Foreign Successors of Mauryas The Indo-Greeks (2nd Century BC)

• Indo-Greeks (Bactrian Greeks) were the first foreign rulers in North-Western India in the post-Maurya period. • The first to invade India were the Indo-Greeks. • They occupied a large portion of NorthWestern India and moved upto Ayodhya and Patliputra. • The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165 BC-145 BC) or Melindo. He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot in Punjab). He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena. Menander and Nagasena’s conversation were recorded in the book Milindapanho or ‘the questions of Milinda’. • The Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of India because of the large number of coins which they issued. • The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins, which can definitely be attributed to the kings. • They were the first to issue gold coins. • They introduced Hellenic, i.e., Greek features in art giving rise to Gandhar School in the North-Western India.

The Sakas (1st Century BC-4th Century AD)

• The Sakas, also known as Scythians, replaced the Indo-Greeks in India. • The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman (130 AD). He repaired the

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famous Sudarshan lake of the Mauryan period and he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit, depicting his patronage of Sanskrit. • In about 58 BC, the king of Ujjain, Vikramaditya is supposed to have fought effectively against the Sakas. An era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from 58 BC.

The Parthians (1st Century BC-1st Century AD)

• P a r t h i a n s r e p l a c e d t h e S a k a s i n North-Western India. • The most famous Parthian king was Gondaphernes, in whose reign St. Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.

The Kushanas (1st Century AD-3rd Century AD)

• Kushanas replaced the Greeks and Parthians. • The first Kushana dynasty was founded by Kujula Kadphises. Vima Kadphises issued gold coins in India. Kanishka founded the second Kushana dynasty. • Their capitals were at Peshawar (Purushapura) and Mathura. • The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, also known as ‘Second Ashoka’. He started an era in 78 AD which is now known as the Saka Era and is used by the Government of India. • Kanishka was a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism. In his reign, 4th Buddhist Council was held in Kundalavana, Kashmir where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalised. • The last great Kushana ruler was Vasudeva I. • The Kushanas controlled the famous silk route starting from China, passing through their empire on to Iran and Western Asia. • The Kushanas were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a wide scale. • In the royal court of Kanishka, a host of scholars found patronage. Parsva, Vasumitra, Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Charaka and Mathara were some of them. • Important ports: Barygaza (Bharuch), Barbairicum (Western Coast), Aricamedu

(Podeku according to Periplus) near Pondicherry, Eastern Coast. • Kushana Empire gave rise to Gandhara and Mathura Schools of Art. • Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra in this period.

Gandhara School of Art

• It exhibits the influence of Greek and Roman art; patronised by Shakas and Kushanas. • They used blue schist stone.

Mathura School of Art

• Buddha of Gandhara Art was copied here, but in a refined way. • The majority of creation consisted of nude, seminude figures of females, Yakshinis or Apsaras in erotic poses.

Gupta Period (319 AD-540 AD) • Guptas arose in Magadha and established a large kingdom over the greater part of Northern India. Their empire was not as large as that of the Mauryas. • This period is referred to as the Classical Age or Golden Age of ancient India. • Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Maurya Empire, it kept North India politically united for more than a century. • Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty. Sri Gupta was followed by his son Ghatotkacha and he was followed by his son Chandragupta. Both used the simple title of Maharaja.

Chandragupta I (319AD-334 AD)

• He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja. • H e s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s k i n g d o m b y matrimonial alliance with the powerful family of Lichchhavis, who were the rulers of Mithila. He got married to the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. • He started the Gupta Era in 319AD-320 AD. • He established his authority over Magadha, Saketa and Prayaga.

Samudragupta (335AD-380 AD)

• Samudragupta was the greatest king of the Gupta dynasty.

Indian History

• The most detailed and authentic record of his reign is preserved in the Prayaga Prasasti/Allahabad pillar inscription, composed by his court poet Harisena. • According to Prayaga Prasasti, he was a great conqueror. • Samudragupta’s military campaigns justify description of him as the Napoleon of India by V.A. Smith. • The reference to his dominion over Java, Sumatra and Malaya islands in the sea shows that he had a navy. • Samudragupta annexed the territories after defeating the monarchs in North India, but did not annex territories in South India.

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• When he died his mighty empire bordered that of the Kushana of Western province and Vakatakas in the Deccan province. • Titles: Kaviraja Param Bhagavat Ashva­ medha-parakrama Vikram Sarva-rajochchhetta only Gupta ruler had the title of Sarva-raj-ochchhetta. • Allahabad pillar inscriptions mention the title Dharma Prachar Bandhu, i.e. he was the upholder of Brahmanical religion. • Meghavarna, the king of Sri Lanka, sent an Embassy to Samudragupta with his permission build a monastery for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodh Gaya.

Gupta kings, their titles and coins Gupta Kings

Titles

Gold Coins

Chandragupta I

Maharajadhiraja or king of the king

Kumardevi type

Samudragupta

Kaviraj (Prayag Prasati Ashvamedha, Vikram, Param, Bhagvat, Sarvarajochchhetta)

Dhanurdhari-Archer Garud, Axe, Ashvamedha. Vyaghra hanam (Tiger Killing) Veena Vadan

Chandragupta II

Vikramaditya, Sakari Devagupta/ Devashri/Devraja Narendra. Chandra Singh Vikram Param Bhagvata etc.

Ashvarohi Chhatradhari ChakraVikram type etc.

Kumargupta

Mahendraitya, Ashvamedha Mahendra and Mahendra Singh

Gajarohi, Khadgadhari, Gajarohi, Sinh-nihanta, Khang-nihanta, Kartikeya and Apratighmudra type

Skandgupta

Vikramaditya Kramaditya, Param Bhagvat Archer king and queen, chhatra and (on coins) Shakrapoma (Kahaum Pillar horseman type inscription); Devaraja (Arya Manjushri Mula Kalpa)

Chandragupta (II) Vikramaditya (380 AD-414 AD)

• According to Devi Chandragupta (Vishakha Datta), Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramagupta. He was the only Gupta ruler to issue copper coins. • He married Kubernaga of the Naga dynasty and married his daughter Prabhavatigupta to Vakataka prince Rudrasena II. • Chandragupta II conquered Western Malwa and Gujarat, from the Shaka Kshatrapas Rudrasena III. • He issued silver coins in the memory of victory over Sakas. He was the first Gupta

ruler to issue silver coins and adopted the titles Sakari and Vikramaditya. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II. • Mehrauli (near Qutub Minar, Delhi) Iron Pillar inscription says that the king defeated the confederacy of Vangas and Vahilkas (Bulkh).

Kumaragupta I (415 AD-455 AD)

• Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta I. • He founded the Nalanda Mahavihara which developed into a great centre of learning.

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General Knowledge  2020

Navratna (Nine Gems) of Chandragupta II 1. Kalidasa (Poetry: medicine text) Ritusamhara, 4. Varahamihira Meghadutam (Pancha Abhijnan Siddhantika) 5. Vararuchi Shakuntalam). 2. Amarsinh 6. Ghatakarna (Amarsinh 7. Kahapranak 8. Velabhatta Kosha) 3. Dhanvantri 9. Shanku (Navanitakam • It was in Chandragupta’s time that the Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India.

Skandagupta (455AD-467 AD)

• He repulsed the ferocious Hunas’ attacks twice. The heroic feat entitled him the title Vikramaditya (Bhitari Pillar Inscription). • During his period, Sudarshana Lake was repaired and its embankments were rebuilt.

Contribution of Gupta Rulers

• City Administration: Paura was the council responsible for city administration. • Army Military: Chariots receded into the background and cavalry came to the forefront. • Senabhakta: It was a form of tax. • Revenue: Land revenue was the chief source of states’ income. • Judiciary: For the first time, civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated. • Coinage: Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called Dinaras in their inscriptions. Silver coins were called Rupayakas.

The Hunas (500 AD-530 AD) • The Hunas were primitive pastoralists owing herd of cattle and horses but knowing nothing about agriculture. Whenever the Gupta Empire’s resistance collapsed, the Hunas occupied the areas upto Central India and Malwa about 500 AD. There were two powerful Huna rulers, Toramana and his son Mihirakula. Mihirakula, a Shaivite, was a persecutor of Buddhism. Hunas were uprooted by Yashodharman of Mandsaur.

Vakatakas (3rd Century AD-5th Century AD) • The Vakatakas were the important powers that held sway over parts of Deccan and Central India after the fall of the Satavahanas and before the rise of Chalukyas. The founder of the Vakataka dynasty was Vindhya Shakti (255 AD-275 AD). Vindhya Shakti was succeeded by his son Pravarsena I (275 AD-335 AD), who was the real founder of the Vakataka Empire. He performed four Ashvamedha Yajnas. Rudrasena I was the contemporary of Samudragupta.

Administration

• The Gupta administration was highly decentralised. • The practice of appointing the crown prince (Kumara) came in vogue. • The Gupta kings were assisted by a council of ministers (Mantriparishad/ Mantrimandalam). • Among the high officers, we may take special notice of the Kumaramatya and the Sandhivigrahika. • The Kumaramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high officials under the Guptas. • The office of Sandhivigrahika first appears under Samudragupta, whose Amatya Harisena held this title. • Decentralisation of the administrative authority began during the Gupta period. • It was during the Gupta rule that the village headmen became more important than before. • In the Gupta period, for the first time, civil and criminal laws were clearly defined and demarcated. • Gupta kings depended primarily on land revenue. • The villagers were subjected to forced labour called Vishti for serving royal army and officials. • The Gupta period also experienced an excess of land grants.

Society

• The Supremacy of Brahmins continued. • The Varna system begins to get modified owing to the proliferation of castes.

Indian History

• The Shudras were permitted to listen to the epics and Puranas and also worship a new God called Krishna. • Katyayana Smriti, a writer of the Gupta period, was the first to use the expression asprasya to denote the untouchable. • The position of women deteriorated further. • Early marriages were advocated and often pre-puberty marriages took place. • The first example of Sati appears in Gupta time in 510 AD in Eran in Madhya Pradesh. • Women were denied any right to property except for Stridhana in the form of jewellery and garments. • Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period onwards.

Economy

• It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive owner of land. The most decisive argument in favour of the exclusive state ownership of land is in the Pahadpur Copper Plate inscription of Buddhagupta. • The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins in ancient India, but in gold content, Gupta coins are not as pure as the Kushanas. • Trade: There was decline in trade with the Roman Empire after 3rd century AD while the South-East Asian trade increased. • The ports of the East coast–Tamralipti, Ghantashala and Kandura–handled the North-Indian trade with South-East Asia; and those of the West coast–Bharuch, Chaul, Kalyan and Cambay–traded with the Mediterranean and West Asia. Taxes Bhaga: King’s share in the produce, to be paid by cultivators Bali: An additional and oppressive tax during Gupta period Bhoga: Periodic supplies of fruits, firewood, etc. which the villagers had to furnish to the king. Uparika: An extra tax levied on all subjects

Culture

• The architecture of the Gupta period may be divided into three categories:

• • • • • •

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1. Rock-cut caves: Ajanta and Ellora Group (Maharashtra) and Bagh (Madhya Pradesh). 2. Structural Temples: Dasavatara temple of Deogarh (Jhansi district, Uttar Pradesh), the oldest and the best. 3. Stupas: Mirpur Khas (Sindh), Dhammekh (Sarnath) and Ratnagiri (Orissa). The art of architecture had achieved greater heights. By evolving the Nagara Style (Shikhar Style), the Guptas are usherers in the history of Indian architecture. The temple architecture, with its garbha griha in which the image of the God was placed, began with the Guptas. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the Veena and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars, viz. Kalidasa, Amarsingha, Dhanvantri, Varahamihira, Vararuchi (Vartika, a comment on Ashtadhyayi), Chatakarna, Kshapranaka, Velabhatta and Shanku. Over two-metre-high bronze image of the Buddha of Gupta period has been recovered from Bhagalpur. The centres of the Gandhar sculptures declined and their places were taken by Benares, Patliputra and Mathura. For the first time, we get images of Vishnu, Shiva and other gods. Buddha’s idols of sitting in Dharma Chakra mudra (Sarnath) and his images of Bamiyan belong to this period. The paintings of this period are found in Bagh (Dhar district, MP) and Ajanta (Aurangabad district, Maharashtra). Stupas were of Mirpur Khas (Sindh), Ratnagiri (Orissa) and Chammekh (Sarnath) regions.

Religion

• Bhagavad Gita was written in this period. • Idol worship in the temple became a common feature. The gods were unified with their respective consorts. Thus, Parvati got associated with Shiva and Lakshmi with Vishnu. • There was also an evolution of Vajrayana and Buddhist tantric cult.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Buddhism no longer received royal pat­ ronage in the Gupta period. Administrative Units and their heads Unit

Headed by

Bhukti (Province)

Uparika

Vishayas (district)

Vishyapati Purapala/Nager

Nagar/Peth Village

Pati Gramika

Religious Literature

• Hindu texts: Many old religious books were rewritten, e.g., Vayu Purana, Vishnu Purana, Manu Smriti (translated into English under the title of “Institutes of Hindu Law”, William Jones), Ramayana and Mahabharata. • Buddhist text: Abhidharmakosa written by Ignaga, Visudhimagga written by Buddhaghosa. • Mrichchakatikam (e.g., the clay cart) is the love story of a poor brahmin Charudatta and virtuous courtesan Vasantasena. • There was development of Sanskrit Grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. Amarakosha was compiled by Amar Singh.

• Dhanvantari was famous for the knowledge of Ayurveda. • Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda. • Bhaskara wrote Mahabhaskarya and Laghu Bhaskarya. Literary Works Author

Book

Sudraka

Mrichakatikam

Sudraka

Mrichakatikam

Bharavi

Kiratarjuniya

Dandin

Dasa Kumar Charitra and Kavyadarshan

Bhasa

Svapnavasavadattam Charudatta

Vishakhadatta

Mudrakshasa Devi Chandraguptam

Vishnu Sharma

Panchtantra and Hitopodesha

Amiarismha

Amarkosh

Iswara Krishna

Sankhya Kanika

Vatsyana

Kamsutra

Bhatin

Ravan Vadha

Varahmihira

Panchasiddantika Birhad Samhita

Important officials Official Maha Pratihari Danda pashika Maha prajapati Mahashvapati Mahadandanayaka

Field work Chief usher of Royal Palace Chief officer of the police department Chief officer of elephant corps Chief of Cavalry Minister of justice

Astronomy (Science)

• Aryabhatta, the great mathematician, wrote Aryabhatiyam and Surya Siddhanta. He placed the value of first line number and the use of zero (‘0’). • Varahamihira wrote Panchasiddhantika and Brihat Samhita. He said the Moon moves round the Earth and Earth together with Moon move round the sun. • Brahmagupta hinted the law of gravitation in Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta. Vagabhatta was a distinguished physician.

Post-Gupta Period/Vardhana Dynasty (550 AD-647 AD) • The Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty was founded at Thaneswar (Karnal district, Haryana) by Pushyabhuti. • The first important ruler of the dynasty was Prabhakaravardhana (580 AD-605 AD). • Prabhakaravardhana was succeeded by his eldest son Rajyavardhana (605 AD-606 AD).

Harshavardhana (606 AD-647 AD)

• Harshavardhana, also known as Siladitya, ascended the Pushyabhuti throne in 606 AD and from this year started the Harsha Era. • He not only unified Kannauj with Thaneswar but also made it his new capital, which made him the most powerful king of North India. • After the death of Shashanka (in 637AD), he conquered Magadha and Shashanka’s empire.

Indian History

• Harshavardhana defeated Dhruvasena II of Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi/Vadami. He inflicted a decisive defeat on him at the bank of Narmada. It was the only defeat of Harsha’s victorious life. • The area under his control covered many parts of Northern India, Eastern Rajasthan and the Ganges Valley as far as Assam. His empire included territories of distant feudal kings too. • In 641 AD, he sent an envoy to Tai-Tsung, the Tang Emperor of China. Hiuen-Tsang, the celebrated Chinese pilgrim, visited India during Harsha’s reign. • Hiuen-Tsang mentions two most celebrated events of Harsha’s reign, the assemblies at Kannauj and at Prayaga. The Kannauj assembly (643 AD) was held in honour of Hiuen-Tsang and to popularise Mahayana sect of Buddhism. • Harshavardhana was a Shaiva by faith, but he showed equal respect to other sects. Hiuen-Tsang portrays him as a liberal Buddhist (Mahayana). • He also granted revenue of 200 villages for the maintenance of Nalanda University. • He died in 647 AD. • He wrote three Sanskrit plays–Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika. He gathered around him a circle of learned men, of whom Banabhatta, the author of Harshacharita and Kadambari, Bhartrihari, the author of Niti Shataka, Shringar Shataka and Vairagya Shataka (jointly called Shatakatrayi) are well-known.

States of the Deccan and South India Chalukyas of Vatapi/Vadami (543 AD-755 AD)

• The Vakataka power was followed by Chalukyas. • Chalukyas established their capital at Vatapi/Vadami in the district of Bijapur in Karnataka.

39

• Pulakesin I (543–566 AD) founded the Chalukya dynasty, who claimed his descent either from Manu or Moon. • Pulakesin II succeeded Kirtivarman-I. Pulkesin II ably put a check on Harsha’s design to conquer Deccan. • Aihole inscription is an eulogy written by his court poet Ravikirti. • The Chinese pilgrim Hiuen-Tsang visited his kingdom. • Pallava ruler Narsimhavarman Mammala invaded the Chalukya kingdom, killed Pulakesin II and captured Vatapi. He adopted the title Vatapikonda, i.e. the conqueror of Vatapi. Vesara Style/Deccan Style • It was started by Chalukyas. • Vesara style temples at Aihole (town of temples): • Jinendra temple (Meguti temple) • Vishnu temple • Lad Khan temple (god Surya) • Durga temple • Nagara style temple at Pattadakal • Papanatha temple • Dravida style temple at Pattadakal • Virupaksha temple • Sangamesvara temple

The Abhiras

• On the downfall of the Satvahanas, the Abhira Ishvarasha establisted himself in northern Maharashtra. He started an era in AD 249. It is known as KalchuriChedi or Abhira era.

The Shakas of Mahishaka

• It was founded by Mana after the decline of the satvahanas in the Deccan.

Pallavas of Kanchi

• They were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their capital was Kanchi. • Both Chalukyas and Pallavas tried to establish their supremacy over land between Krishna and Tungabhadra.

40

General Knowledge  2020

Administrative Units of the Pallavas

Names of the Chiefs

Mandal (Province)

Rastrik

Nadu (District)

Deshatric

Village (Kottam–Group of villages)

Gram Bhojak

Pallava Art

• Pallavas began the Dravida style of temple architecture, which reached culmination under the rule of Cholas. • The Pallavas also contributed to the development of sculpture in South India.

Tripartite Struggle

• The struggle for supremacy between the Palas, the Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakutas for the possession of Kannauj at the end of 8th Century AD is known as the Tripartite struggle in the history.

Kalachuris

• The early period the Kalachuris were known as Haihayas with Mahishmati as their capital. • Krishnaraja, the earliest known chief of this dynasty was succeeded by his son Buddharaja.

The Gangas

• Also called Chedagangas of Orissa. • King Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun temple at Konarka. • King Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri • Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Ganga built the Lingaraga temple at Bhubaneshwar.

The Senas

• They ruled Bengal after the Palas. • Its founder was Samantsena. His grandson Vijayasena brought the family into limelight. • The famous poet Shri Harsha composed the Vijayaprasasti in memory of Vijaysena. • He was succeeded by Ballalasena. He wrote Danasagra and Adbhut Sagara.

• He was succeeded by Lakshmanasena Jayadeva. The famous Vaishnava poet of Bengal and the author Gita Govinda lived at his court.

The Palas (750 AD-1150 AD), Capital: Muddagiri/Munger (Bihar)

• Gopala founded the Pala Empire in 750 AD. • His son Dharmapala (770 AD-810 AD) succeeded him. Dharmapala revived Nalanda University. • He founded the Vikramshila University. • The Pala dynasty was succeeded by Sena dynasty of Bengal. Jayadeva (Gita Govinda) was the great court poet of Laxman Sen.

The Pratiharas (730 AD-1036 AD)

• Bhoja/Mihir Bhoja (836 AD-882 AD) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. • He was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adi-Varah.

The Rashtrakutas (752 AD-953 AD)

• Dantidurg (752 AD-756 AD) who fixed his capital at Malkhand/Malkhed (Gulbarga district, Karnataka), founded the kingdom. • The greatest Rashtrakuta rulers were Govinda III (793 AD-814 AD) and Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha wrote Kavirajamargam, the earliest Kannada book on poetics. • The famous rock-cut temple of Kailash (Shiva) at Ellora was built by one of the Rashtrakuta kings, Krishna I.

The Traikutakas

• Appear to be the feudatories of Abhiras at first. • First ruler was Indra Dutta. Who was followed by Dahrasena, Vyaghrasena and Madhyamsena. • Aniruddhapura was the capital of this kingdom. • Vikramsena was the last known King of this dynasty.

Temples Constructed by Rashtrakutas Temple Tiruvaleswaram

Place Brahmadesha

Constructed by Raj Raj I

Indian History Uttarkailash Rajrajeshwar Gangaikondchola Airavateshwar Kamhaveshwar Vijalaycholeshwar Balsubramaniyam Nageshwar Kornagnain Moverkaite

Tiruvadi Tanjore Gangai Kondacholapuram Darsunam Tirumaranam Naratmatai Kannanur Kuminakanam Sriniwasnallur Padukottai

Sangam Age The Cheras

• The capital of Cheras was Vanji. • Its main ports were Muzris and Tondi. • One of the earliest and better known among Chera rulers was Udiyangeral. • The greatest of Chera king, however, was Senguttuvan or Red Chera. • He was also the founder of the famous Pattini cult.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyas’ territory included modern districts of Tirunelvelli, Ramnad and Madurai in Tamil Nadu. It had its capital at Madurai, situated on the banks of Vaigai river. • The Pandya king sent emissaries to Roman emperor Augustus and Trojan. • The earliest known Pandyan ruler was Mudukudumi. • The greatest Pandya king was Nendujelian.

Sangam Administration

• The king was the centre of administration. • Avai was the court of the crowned monarch. • Revenue Administration: Karai (Land Tax), Irai (Tribute paid by feudatories and booty collected in war).

41

Raj Raj I Rajendra I Rajendra I Raj Raj II Kallotunga III Vijayalaya Aditaya I Aditaya I Vartak I Bhutivikram Kesiri

• Ulgu (Customs duties), Iravu (Extra demand or forced gift), Viriyam (A well-known unit of territory yielding tax) and Variyar (Tax collector). • Sangam was an assembly of Tamil poets held under royal patronage of Pandyan kings in Madurai. • The first Sangam was attended by gods and legendary sages. • Of the second Sangam, the only surviving work is Tolkappiyam, an early work on Tamil grammar written by Tolakapryar. • Of the third Sangam, most of the works are surviving. These are Ettuthogai, Pattupattu and Pathinenkilkanakku. • Kural or Muppal, a part of Pathinenkilkanakku and written in Thiruvalluvar is called the Bible of the Tamil land. It is treatise on polity ethics and social norms.

Sangam Literature

• The whole Sangam age is called Golden or Augustan Age. According to Tamil sources, the father of Tamil literature is Agastya.

Important Sangam Works

• Tokapiyam by Tolakapriyar. • Thirukural or Kural by Thiruvalluvar is sometimes called the ‘fifth veda’ or ‘Bible of the Tamil land’.

Sangam Regions Panchtinai Five tamil regions kurinji (hilly backwoods) Palai (Pastoral tract) Mullai (Pastoral tract)

Inhabitants Kurvar, Vetar Eyinar Maravar Ayar Idiyer

Marutam (wetlands)

Ulavar, Uellalar

Occupation Hunting, Gathering Cattle lifting, robbery Shifting agriculture, animal husbandry Plough agriculture

42

General Knowledge  2020

Tamil Sangams Sangams

Venue

Chairman

Surviving Texts

1st

Madurai

Agastaya

2nd

Kapatapuram Alvi

Agastaya

Tolakappiyam (Tamil Grammar)

3rd

North Madurai

Nakkirar

Ettuogai Patinenki Lakanakku

Epics

• Silapathikaram by Ilango Adigal is also called ‘Illiyad’ of Tamil Poetry. • Bharatman written by Perudevanar.

the Cholamandalam Lake and the city of Gangikonda Cholapuram. He won the Java, Sumatra and Malaya areas from the Shailendra king. Epithet of the Chola Rulers

The Chola Empire (850 AD-1279 AD)

• • • •

• •

• •

• •

Capital: Tanjore, Gangaikonda Cholapuram. The founder of the Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya, who was at first a feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 AD. The ancient capital of Cholas was Palyarai. Vijayalaya revived the Chola Empire in 9th century AD. He took the title of ‘Narkesari’. Aditya Chola defeated the Pallava king Aparajit, captured Tondamandalam and took the title of ‘Maduraikonda’. He built a Siva Temple at Tanjore. Parantak I established his authority over the North-Eastern part of Sri Lanka. Rajaraja I (985 AD-1014 AD) attacked over Sri Lanka. He permitted the Shailendra king to build the Churamani Buddhist Vihara at Nagapattanam. The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja (985 AD-1014 AD) and his son Rajendra I (1014 AD-1044 AD). Rajaraja built Vrihadeshwar/Rajarajeshwar temple (attributed to Shiva) at Tanjore. Rajendra I conquered Orissa, Bengal, Burma and Andaman and Nicobar islands. The Chola dynasty was at its zenith during his reign. Rajendra I assumed the title of ‘Gangaikonda Cholam’ and built a city called Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Rajendra I (1014 AD-1044 AD) conquered the complete Sri Lanka and made Anuradhapura his capital. He defeated the Pala king Mahipala and took the title of Gangaikonda Cholam and he also built

Name of the King

Epithet

Rajendra I

Vijayrajendra

Vikramachola

Tagayasamudra

Kulothinga

Sangam Tavarta

Prantak I

Madiraikond

Prantak II

Sundarchola

Rajaraja I

Martanda Chola

• The most important feat of Chola admin­ istration was local self-government. • Cholas maintained strong navy. ‘Kasu’ or Kalaju’ was their gold coin. • Litterateur Bentek Madhav wrote com­ mentary on Rigveda in this period. • Jayanodar wrote Phalingtuparni and Sekkizhar wrote Periya Puranam in the court of Kulottunga I. • The last ruler of Chola dynasty was Rajendra III. • Land revenue and trade tax were the main sources of income. • The style of architecture which came into vogue during this period is called Dravida, e.g., Kailashnath temple of Kanchipuram. • Another aspect was image-making, which reached its climax in the dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja. • Kambana, who wrote Ramavataram, was one of the greatest figures of Tamil poetry. His Ramayana is also known as Kamba Ramayana. • Kambana, Kuttana and Pugalendi are considered as ‘three gems’ of Tamil poetry. • Gopuram and Garbhagriha are the other two important structures.

)) Note: The temple of Hoysaleswara was built at Dwarasamudra (modern Halebid).

Indian History

43

Chola Temples Temple

Location

Builder

Kailasnath Temple

Kanchipuram

King Rajasimha

Vrihadeshwar Temple

Tanjore

Rajaraja I

Koranganatha Temple

Sriniwasanllur

Parantak I

Airawteshwar Temple

Darasuram

Rajarya II

Kampahreshwar Temple

Tribhuvan

Kullotung III

Gangi konda

Gangaikonda

Rajendra II

Cholapuran

Cholapuran

Important Places Associated with Chola Rule

• Polannaruva: The Sri Lankan city annexed by Rajaraja. • Thanjavur or Tanjore: The Cholan capital where Rajaraja I constructed the Brihadeswara temple. • Uttaramerur: The place where two tenthcentury inscriptions relating to Chola administration have been found. • Vellur: It was the place where Chola king Parantaka I defeated the combined army of the Pandyas and Sri Lanka. • Anuradhapura: The Sri Lankan capital, which was destroyed by Rajaraja I. • Chidambaram: The place where Chola kings were coronated. • Gangaikondacholapuram: The city which was constructed by Rajendra I after his successful North India campaign. • Mumidcholamandalam: The name of the province which Rajaraja I carved out from the Sri Lankan territories. • Nagapattanam: The place where Mahendra V, a Shailendra ruler, constructed a vihara.

Religious Development Vaishnavism

• Lord Vasudeva was first worshipped in Western India. Besnagar inscription states that the cults received royal patronage. Soon Vasudeva was identified with Narayana and Krishna.

• Matsya Purana refers to the ten incarnations of Vishnu. • This cult emphasised over Bhakti and Ahimsa.

Saivism

• Shiva is identified with the Rig Vedic god Rudra. He was worshipped in the form of linga (phallus). • Gundimallam linga is the oldest idol of Siva excavated from Renugunta in Andhra Pradesh. • Vamana Puran refers to four schools of Saivism–Pasupati, Saiva, Kapalika and Kalmukha. • Pashupati is the oldest cult founded by Lakulisa. • Kanphata or Gorakhnath cult was propounded by Gorakhnath in Eastern Bengal. • Suddhasaiva cult was expounded by Srikanth Sevacharya. • Virasiva or Lindayat cult was founded by Basava. • Rashtrakutas built the Kailash temple of Ellora and Kushan kings inscribed Shiva and Nadi on their coins.

Shakti Dharma

• It is first mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Christianity

• This religion was founded by Jesus Christ. He was born to Mother Mary in Bethlehem near Jerusalem. • Bible is the holy book of Christians and the sign of ‘cross’ is their holy symbol.

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General Knowledge  2020

Islam

• Hazrat Muhammad Saheb founded the Islamic religion. He was born at Mecca in 570 AD. • Hazrat Muhammad attained supreme knowledge or enlightenment in 610 AD in the Hira Cave near Mecca. His teachings are compiled in the Holy Quran. • 24th September, 622 AD is the day Hazrat Muhammad started his journey from Mecca to Madina to mark the beginning of Hijri Era.

• After his death, Islam divided into the Shia and Sunni cults. His successors were known as Khalifas. The Turkish ruler, Mustafa Kamal Pasha, ended the designation of Khalifa in 1994 AD. • The birthday of Muhammad Saheb is celebrated as Eid-e-Milad-ul-Nabi.

Zoroastrianism (Parsi)

• Parsi religion was founded by Prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra). His teachings compiled in the holy book Zend Avesta. His followers believed in one God, Ahur.

45

Medieval India The Rajputs

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• Origin: Four of the Rajputs clans claim, to have descendant from a mythical figure that arose out of a sacrificial fire pit (Agnikund) near Mount Abu. They are:

Parmars/Pawars of Malwa. Chalukyas/Solankis of Kathiawar. Chauhans of East Rajasthan. Partihara/Pariharas of south Rajasthan.

Some important Rajputs Kingdoms Rajputs Kingdom

Capital

Founder

Pawar of Malwa

Ujjain, Dhar

Sri Harsha

Partihara of Kannauj

Avanti Kannauj

Nagabhatta

Chauhan/Chahman of Delhi-Ajmer

Delhi

Vasudeva

Rashtrakuta of Malkhand

Manyakhata

Danti Durga

Chandela of Jejakbhukti

Khajuraho, Mahoba Kalinjar

Nannuk Chandela

Gadhawal/Rathor of Kannauj

Kannauj

Chandradeva

Guhilota/Sisodiya of Mewar

Chittor

Bappa Rawal, Hammir II

Kalchuri/Haihaya of Chedi

Tripuri

Kokkala

Delhi Sultanate (1206 AD-1526 AD) • First Muslim invasion by Mohammad Bin Qasim (712 AD). • First Turkish Invasion by Mahmud Ghaznavi (998 AD-1030 AD): Sultan Muhmud of Ghazni. In 1025, he attacked and raided the most celebrated Hindu temple of Somnath.

Mahmud of Ghazni

• He patronised three persons, contemporary to him: Firdausi (court poet), Al Beruni (scholar) and Utbi (court historian). • Al Beruni wrote Kitab-ul-Hind. • Mahmud is said to have made 17 raids into India. A decisive battle between Mahmud and Anandpala was fought in 1008AD-1009 AD at Waihind during his sixth expedition.

• The objective of Mahmud’s expeditions was to plunder and loot. He was not interested in expanding his empire to India. • In 1173 AD, Muizuddin Muhammad (Muhammad Ghori) ascended the throne at Ghazni. Muizuddin Muhammad conquered Multan and Kutch. • In 1178 AD, he attempted to penetrate into Gujarat by marching across the Rajputana desert but was completely routed by the Gujarat ruler. • He conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot. • Prithviraj Raso, written by court poet of Prithviraj, Chand Bardai, depicts the life story of Prithviraj and his love story. • In 1194 AD, Jaichand of Kannauj was also defeated at the Battle of Chandawar.

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General Knowledge  2020

• S e c o n d T u r k I n v a s i o n - M o h a m m a d Ghori’s invasion (1175 AD-1206 AD): Mohammad Ghori invaded India and laid the foundation of the Muslim domination in India. He may be considered the founder of Muslim rule in India.

Battle of Terain • In the first battle of Terain (1191) the Ghori Forces were completely rooted out by Prithviraj. • The second battle of Terain (1192) is regarded as one of the turning points in Indian history. Prithviraj was defeated by Ghori.

The Slave Dynasty (1206 AD-1290 AD) Qutubuddin Aibak (1206 AD-1210 AD)

• A Turkish slave by origin after the death of Ghori, Aibak became the master of Hindustan and founded the Slave Dynasty in 1206 AD. For his generosity, he was given the title of Lakh Baksh (giver of lakhs). • Sultan Razia rejected the Pardah, she adorned the male dress and held open courts. • He died in 1210 AD while playing Chaugan or horse polo. • He constructed two mosques, Quwwat-ulIslam in Delhi and Adhai din ka Jhonpra in Ajmer. He also began the construction of Qutub Minar, in honour of famous Sufi Saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. • Patronised writers like Hasan-ul Nizami, author of Taj-ul-Massir and Fakhruddin, author of Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi.

Aram Shah (1210 AD)

• After Qutubuddin’s death, his son Aram Shah succeeded him.

Shamsuddin Iltutmish (1211 AD-1236 AD)

• He was a slave of Qutubuddin Aibak and occupied the throne of Delhi in 1211 AD after deposing Aram Bakhsh.

• He regarded as the ‘real founder of the Delhi Sultanate’. He made Delhi the capital in place of Lahore. • He saved Delhi Sultanate from the wrath of Changez Khan by refusing shelter to Khwarizm Shah, whom Changez Khan was chasing. • He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognised by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa) as member of world fraternity of Islamic states. • H e c o m p l e t e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Qutub Minar. • He constituted a group of 40 nobles known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa. • He started the Iqta-dar system in Delhi Sultanate. This is an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. • He introduced the silver coin (tanka) and the copper coin (jital). • He patronised Minhaj-al-Siraj, author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri. • In 1216 Iltutmish defeated Eldoz in the battle of Tarain and crushed him totally. • In 1227–28 Iltutmish invaded on Bhakkar and killed Qubacha. • In 1225 Iltutmish invaded on Lakhnavti and defeated Ghyasuddin.

Rukn-ud-din

• He was the son of Iltutmish and was crowned by her mother, Shah Turkan, after the death of Iltutmish.

Razia Sultan (1236 AD-1240 AD)

• She was the first and last Muslim woman ruler of Medieval India. • She appointed Jamaluddin Yakoot as the highest officer of cavalry. • She abandoned Pardah and appeared before the public in male dress. • She saved the empire from Mongol invasion.

Bahram Shah (1240 AD-1242 AD)

• After Razia, Iltutmish’s third son Bahram Shah was put on the throne by the powerful Turkish council Chalisa.

Indian History

• He was considered only as de jure ruler, while Naib-e-Mamlakat (the regent) was the de facto ruler.

Masud Shah (1242 AD-1246 AD)

• He was the son of Ruknuddin but was deposed after Balban and Nasiruddin Mahamud’s mother. Mallika-e-Jahan conspired against him and established Nasiruddin Mahamud as the new Sultan.

Nasiruddin Mahamud (1246 AD-1266 AD)

• He was the son of Iltutmish and was known as the Darvesi King.

Balban (1266 AD-1287 AD)

• He himself was a member of Chalisa or Chahalgani but he broke the power of Chahalgani and restored the prestige of the crown. • He created a strong centralised army and established the military department Diwan-i-Arz. He ordered the separation of military affairs from finance department (Diwan‑i‑Wazarat). • He declared the sultan as representative of God on Earth. Persian court model influenced Balban’s conception of kingship. He took up the title of Zil-i-Ilahi (shadow of God) and impressed upon the people that the king was the deputy of God (Niyabat-i-Khudai). • He insisted on the Iranian ceremonies of sijda and paibos. • He introduced zaminbosi or practice of sijda. • Balban started the festival of Navroz. He adopted a policy of blood and iron. • He was a patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to Amir Khusro.

Kaiqubad (1287 AD-1290 AD)

• A grandson of Balban was seated on the throne by Fakhruddin, the kotwal of Delhi. But Kaiqubad was killed by the Khilji family, which saw the end of Slave dynasty and beginning of Khilji dynasty at the Delhi throne.

47

The Khilji Dynasty (1290 AD-1320 AD) Jalaluddin Khilji

• He was the first ruler of Delhi Sultanate to clearly put forward the view that the state should be based on the willing support of the governed and that since the large majority of the people in India were Hindus, the state in India could not be a truly Islamic State. • The most important aspect of his reign was invasion of Devagiri in 1294 AD by his nephew and son-in-law Alauddin Khilji. • The Sultan went to Kara to meet Alauddin Khiiji. But Alauddin killed Jalaluddin on a boat in the Ganges on 20 July, 1296.

Alauddin Khilji (1296 AD-1316 AD)

• He was the nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khilji, Alauddin Khilji killed him and succeeded the throne in 1296. • He came to the throne by treacherously murdering his uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khilji. • He first conquered Gujarat. • Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. • He was the first Turkish Sultan who separated religion from politics. • Alauddin strengthened the north-west frontier under his trusted commander Ghazi Mallik.

Alauddin’s Imperialism

• In Deccan, Alauddin’s army led by Malik Kafur defeated Ram Chandra (Yadava ruler of Devagiri), Pratap Rudradeva (Kakatiya ruler of Warangal), Vir Ballal III (Hoyasala ruler of Dwarsamudra) and Vir Pandya (Pandya ruler of Madurai).

Administrative Reforms

• First sultan to have permanent army. • In order to avoid the problems created by the nobles, Alauddin issued four important ordinances. • He introduced the system of Dagh (the branding of horse) and Chehra (descriptive role of soldiers).

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General Knowledge  2020

• The post of special officer called Mustakharaj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue. • Alauddin sought to fix cost of all commodities. For this purpose, he set up three markets in Delhi.

Revenue Reforms of Alauddin Khilji Market/Economic Reforms • Alauddin controlled the market by many regulations. • Fixed the cost of all commodities. • He setup three markets in Delhi. • All goods for sale were brought to the open market called ‘Sarai Adi’. • He established the market control department under a minister called diwani-riyasat.

• Measured the cultivable land and fixed the land revenue. Bishwa was declared to be the standard of measurement. • The state demanded half of the produce. • Alauddin is credited to have built many forts and the most important of them is Ali Fort. He also constructed the Alai Darwaja, the entrance gate of Qutub Minar. • He also built the palace of thousand pillars called ‘Hazar Sutun’, Hauz Khas and Jamait Khana post and built his capital at Siri. He adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sahni. • He is the first Turkish sultan who separated religion from politics. • He patronized Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi.

Successors of Alauddin

• After the death of Alauddin in 1316 AD, Malik Kafur Hazar Dinari seized the throne, but he could not rule for long and nominated Shihabuddin (Alauddin’s sixteenth son) as king. • Shihabuddin was deposed by Qutubuddin Mubarak Shah (1316 AD-1320 AD). • Nasiruddin Shah (1320 AD) killed Mubarak Shah and himself was killed by Ghazi Malik, governor of Dipalpur.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD-1414 AD) Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq

• Ghazi Malik or Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was the founder of Tughlaq dynasty or the dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks. • He was the first sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels. • Construction of canals and formulation of a famine policy. • Started the barter system or sharing of crops. • He sent his son Jauan Khan to re-establish the authority in Warangal (Kakatiya) and Madurai (Pandyas). • He built the city of Tughlaqabad near Delhi and made it his capital. • Sufi saint, Shaikh Nizam-ud-din Aulia said Delhi is far away in regard to him. • He died in 1325 AD, after a fall from a highraised pavilion.

Mohammad Bin Tughlaq (1325 AD-1351 AD)

• Prince Jauan, son of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, ascended the throne in 1325 AD. • He had five ambitious projects for which he became particularly debatable. i. Taxation in the Doab (1326 AD) ii. Transfer of Capital (1327 AD): from Delhi to Devagiri. Devagiri was thus named Daulatabad. iii. Introduction of Token Currency (1329 AD) iv. Proposed Khurasan Expedition (1329 AD) v. Qarachil Expedition (1330 AD): His five projects led to revolts. • He was an expert in Arabic, Persian Astronomy, Philosophy, Maths and Medicine. • He died in Thatta (Sind) while campaigning against a Turkish slave Taghi. • A new department of agriculture Diwani-Kohi was set up. He built fortress of Adilabad and city of ‘Jahanpanah’. • The famous Moroccan traveller Ibn Batuta came to Delhi in 1334 AD and acted as the Qazi of the capital for eight years. He

Indian History

recorded the contemporary Indian science in his Safranamah (Rahela).

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351 AD-1388 AD)

• He was the cousin of Mohammad-binTughlaq. After his death, the nobles and theologians of the court selected Firoz Shah as the next Sultan. • He decreed that whenever a noble died, his son should be allowed to succeed to his position including his Iqta if he had no sons. His son-in-law and, in his absence, his slave was to succeed. • Firoz extended the principle of heredity to the army. • Firoz tried to win over the theologians proclaiming that he was a true Muslim king and the state under him was truly Islamic. • He prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship at graves of saints. • It was during the time of Firoz that Jizya became a separate tax. Firoz refused to exempt the Brahmanas from payment of Jizya. • Four kinds of taxes sanctioned by the Quran were imposed. These taxes were Kharaj, Zakat, Jizya and Khams. • Firoz repaired a number of canals and imposed Haque-i-Sharb or Hasil-i-Sharb (water tax). • He was a great builder. The cities of Fatehabad, Hisar, Jaunpur and Firozabad stand to his credit. • He encouraged the practice of slavery and selected young boys from the conquered territory for the purpose. Diwan-i-Bandagon was created as the department for slaves. • He brought two pillars of Ashoka from Topara and Meerut to Delhi, and repaired Qutub Minar when it was stuck by lightening. • He established a hospital in Delhi. He was known as Darul-Shifa. • He introduced two new coins–Adha (50% Jital) and Bikh (25% Jital). Mathura was destroyed during that period. • Barani, the historian, was in his court. He wrote Tarikh-i-Feroshahi and Fatwa-i-Jahangiri. • However, his rule was marked by peace and tranquility, and the credit for it goes to his Prime Minister Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul.

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Taxation System Firoz Shah Tughlaq introduced new system of taxation according to Quran. • Kharaj: A land tax of 1/10th of the procedure of land. • Zakat: 2.5 tax on property (by muslim only). • Jaziya: A tax by non-muslim (even by Brahmins). • Khams:1/6th of the booty captured during war.

After Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1388 AD-1414 AD)

• After Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq Shah-I succeeded. He was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389 AD. • Abu Bakr was replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390 AD. Nasiruddin Mohammad was replaced by Alauddin Sikandar Shah for brief in 1394 AD but regained the throne after Sikandar’s death. He ruled till 1412 AD. During his period, Timur invaded India. Timur’s Invasion (1398 AD-1399 AD) • Timur, the lame, a Turkish Chief invaded India in 1398 during the reign of Muhammad Shah Tughlaq, the last ruler of Tughlaq dynasty. Timur returned to Central Asia, leaving a nominee named Khizr Khan to rule in Punjab.

The Sayyid Dynasty (1414 AD-1450 AD) • Khizr Khan (1414 AD-1421 AD) founded the Sayyid dynasty and claimed to have descended from the prophet of Islam. • Khizr Khan took the title of Rayat-i-Ala and not of a king. • Mubarak Shah (1412 AD-1433 AD) led successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katehars and the Gangeti Doab area. • Muhammad Shah (1434 AD-1443 AD) ruled on a very small area, rest being governed by nobles. Alauddin Shah Alam (1443 AD-1451 AD) was the last Sayyid king, who retired as a coward, descending in favour of Bahlol Lodhi.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-Abdullah Sirhindi wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarak Shahi (History of Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).

The Lodhi Dynasty (1451 AD-1526 AD) Bahlol Lodhi (1451AD-1488 AD)

• Founder of Lodhi dynasty in India. • Annexed entire Sharqi kingdom and issued Bahlol coins. • Never sat on throne, used to sit on carpets along with Anines.

Sikandar Lodhi (1489 AD-1517 AD)

• Sikandar Lodhi was the son of Bahlol Lodhi who conquered Bihar and western Bengal. • Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers, real name was Nizam Khan (son of Bahalul Lodhi). • He conquered Bihar and Bengal in 1504 AD. He built a new city named Agra, and made it his capital. • He shifted his capital from Delhi to Agra, a city founded by him. • He broke the sacred images of the Jwalamukhi Temple at Nagarkot and ordered the temples of Mathura to be destroyed. • H e i n t r o d u c e d t h e G a z - i - S i k a n d a r i (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 digits for measuring cultivated fields. • He was a poet and wrote verses in Persian under the pet name Gularukh. • He repaired Qutub Minar.

Ibrahim Lodhi (1517 AD-1526 AD)

• He was the last king of the Lodhi dynasty and the last sultan of Delhi. • He was the son of Sikandar Lodhi. • Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Governor of Punjab, invited Bahur to overthrow Ibrahim. • He captured Gwalior and was defeated by Rana Sanga of Mewar. • He was defeated and killed at the hands of Babur in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 AD.

Causes of the Decline of Delhi Sultanate

i. Despotic and military type of government. ii. Degeneration of Delhi Sultans.

iii. War of succession as there was no fixed law for succession. iv. Greed and incompetency of the noble. v. Financial instability. vi. Invasion of Timur.

Administration

• Political, legal and military authority vested in the sultan. He was responsible for administration. • The country was divided into Iqta which was distributed among the nobles, officers and soldiers. • The key figure in the administration was Wazir. • The head of military department was called Ariz-i-Mamalik. • Diwan-i-Risalat dealt with religious matter. The Qazi dispensed civil law based on Muslim law (Sharia). • Diwan-i-Insha headed by Dahir-i-Mumalik managed the royal correspondence. • The rulers posted intelligence agents called Braids in different parts of the empire. • Wakil-i-Dar was responsible for maintenance of proper decorum at the court. • The provinces were divided into Shiqs and headed by Shiqdars. Important Central Departments of Delhi Sultanate Department

Function

Diwan-i-Mustakhraj

Department of arrears

Diwan-i-Khairat

Department of charity

Diwan-i-Kohi

Department of agriculture

Diwan-i-Insha

Department of correspondence

Diwan-i-Risalat (Foreign Minister)

Department of appeals

Diwan-i-Ariz

Military department

Diwan-i-Bandagan

Department of slaves

Diwan-i-Qaza

Department of justice Mamalik

Diwan-i-Isthiaq

Department of pensions

Important Central Officials

• Wazir: The Cheif Minister of the State incharge of revenue and finances, controlled by other departments.

Indian History

• Ariz-i-Mumalik: Head of military department. • Amir-i-hazib: Officer-in-charge of the royal court. • Kazi-i-mumalik: Chief Justice. • Kazi-ul-kazat: Head of the central judicial department. • Amir-i-majlis: Officer-in-charge of royal feasts, conference and festivals. • Majlis-i-am: Council of friends and officers consulted on important affairs of the state. • Dahir-i-mumalik: Head of the royal correspondence. • Sadr-us-sudur: Dealt with the religious matters and endowments. • Sadr-i-jahan: Officers-in-charge of religious and charitable endowment. • Amir-i-dad: Public prosecutors. • Qazi: Legal officer (dispensed civil law based on Muslim law Shariat). • Wakil-i-dar: Controller of the royal household. • Barid-i-mumalik: Head of the state news agency. • Naib wazir: Deputy minister. • Mushrif-i-mumalik: Accountant general.

Art and Architecture under Delhi Sultanate

• The new features brought by the Turkish conquerors were: (i) the dome, (ii) the lofty towers, (iii) the true arch unsupported by beam, and (iv) the vault. • The first example of true or voussoired arch is said to be the tomb of Ghiyasuddin Balban in Mehrauli (Delhi). • In the Khilji period, the usage of voussoired arch and dome was established and for all. A famous example is the tomb of Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia in Delhi. • The construction of double domes was the main feature of Lodhi Architecture. One building worth noting is the Moth ki Masjid erected by the Prime Minister of Sikandar Lodhi. Architectural Landmarks of the Sultanate Period

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Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra

Ajmer

Qutub-ud-din Aibak

Tomb of Ghiyasud-din Tughlaq

Delhi

Muhammad-binTughlaq

Tughlaqabad Fort

Delhi

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq

Moth Ki Masjid

Delhi

Prime Minister of Sikandar Lodi

Qutub Minar

Delhi

Iltutmish (founded by Qutub-ud-din Aibak)

Tomb of Hazart Nizamuddin Aulia

Delhi

Ala-ud-din Khilji

Alai Darwaja

Delhi

Ala-ud-din Khilji

Jamaat Khana Masjid

Delhi

Ala-ud-din Khilji

Music

• Rabab and Sarangi were introduced. • Amir Khusro introduced many Persian Arabic ragas. He also invented the Sitar.

Paintings

• Arabs introduced paper in the 15th century and this encouraged painting.

Literature

• Uday Raj wrote a long poem (Shahnama) praising Mahmud and describing some incidents of his justice and equality. • Zai Nakshabi translated Sanskrit shlokas into Persian under the title Tuti namah. • Merutanga wrote Prabandha Chintamani. Literary Sources Book

Author

Khazyan-ul-Futuh

Amir Khusro

Tuglaqnamah

Amir Khusro

Tabagat-i-Nasiri

Minhaj-us-Siraj

Tarikh-i-Firozshahi

Ziauddin Barni

Gita Govind

Jayadeva

Mitakshara

Vigyaneshwara

Structure

Location

Builder

Dayabhage

Jimuta Vahana

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

Delhi

Qutub-ud-din Aibak

Ashigaandkhir khan

Amir Khusro

Amuktamalyada

Krishan Deva Raya

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General Knowledge  2020

Book

Author

Futuhat-i-Firozshah

Firoz Shah

Parsana Kaghava

Jayadeva

Khamsah

Amir Khusro

Miftahul Fatah

Amir Khusro

Amir Khusro

• He was a Persian poet (1253 AD-1325 AD) associated with royal courts of more than seven rulers of the Delhi Sultanate. • He was also a musician, he invented sitar. • He innovated Khayal (a style of singing). • In his book Tarikh-i-Alai, he gave an account of conquest of Alauddin Khilji. • He also lived in the court of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and wrote Tughlaqnamah. • Khusro is also known as Tuti-i-Hind or ‘Parrot of India’.

Provincial Kingdoms Gujarat

• Disintegrated from Delhi in 1397 AD, under Zaffar Khan, who assumed the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah. • Ahmed Shah I (his grandson), built a new city Ahmedabad and also built Jama Masjid and Tin Darwaza at Ahmedabad. • In the reign of Mahmud Beghra, Portuguese set up a factory at Diu. Udayraja was his court poet. • Akbar annexed Gujarat in 1573 AD.

Malwa

• Husan Shah was a powerful ruler of Malwa. He built Jama Masjid, Hindol Mahal and Jahaz Mahal at Mandu. • Malwa became a part of Gujarat in 1531 AD and was annexed to Mughal state in 1562 AD.

Kashmir

• Shamsuddin Shah became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir in 1339 AD. • Zainulabdin (1420 AD-1470 AD) was the greatest ruler of Kashmir, also known as ‘Badshah’ and Akbar of Kashmir. He introduced the art of shawl-making in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and an artificial island in the Wular Lake.

• Later ruled by Chak Dynasty, whose ruler submitted to Akbar in 1586 AD.

Mewar

• The capital city of Chittor was captured by Alauddin Khilji in 1303 AD but Rajput rule was soon restored by Rana Hamir (1326 AD-1364 AD). • Rana Kumbha Karan (1433 AD-1468 AD) was the greatest ruler of Mewar. He built the famous victory tower Vijay Stambh at Chittor to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. His court was adorned by Mandan who wrote many books on architecture, Parsad Mandan and Rupa Mandan. • Rana Sangram Singh (1509 AD-1528 AD) defeated Mahmud II of Malwa and Ibrahim Lodhi.

Bengal

• Disintegrated from Delhi during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. • In 1342 AD, Iliyas Khan founded the new Iliyas Shahi Dynasty. • The famous poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronized by the Sultans and was given the title of ‘Gunaraja Khan’. • Chaitanya and Shankaradeva belonged to this period. • Sher Shah Suri occupied Bengal in 1538 AD.

Vijayanagar and Other Kingdoms Vijayanagar Empire (1336 AD-1580 AD)

• Vijayanagar kingdom and the city were founded by Harihar and Bukka. • They were brought to the centre by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq, converted to Islam and were sent to South to control rebellion but motivated by a Bhakti saint Vidyaranya, they established Vijayanagar kingdom in 1336 AD. • Vijayanagar period can be divided into four distinct dynasties, viz. Sangam, Saluva, Tuluva and Aravidu.

Indian History

• Bukka I (1356 AD-1379 AD): Bukka I strengthened the city of Vidyanagar and renamed it Vijayanagar. The royal ambassadors from Malabar and Ceylon adorned his court. • Harihar II (1379 AD-1404 AD): Bukka I was succeeded by his son Harihar II. • Deva Raya I (1406 AD-1422 AD): His greatest achievement was his irrigation works where a dam was built across the Tungabhadra, with canals leading to the city. Nicolo de Conti visited Vijayanagar during his reign. • Srinatha was his court poet, who wrote Haravilasam. • There was a Pearl Hall in his palace, where he honoured men of eminence. • Deva Raya II (1423 AD-1446 AD): He was the grandson of Deva Raya I. Ahmad Shah I of Bahamani invaded Vijayanagar and exacted a war indemnity. He was called Praudh Deva Raya. In his inscriptions, he has the title of Gajabetekara (the elephant hunter). Sri Lanka paid a regular tribute to him. Dindima was the court poet, whereas Srinatha was given the title of Kavisarvabhauma. Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Shah Rukh, visited Vijayanagar during his reign.

The Saluva Dynasty (1486 AD-1505 AD)

• Saluva Narsimha (1486 AD-1491 AD): He founded the Saluva dynasty. • Tirumal (1491 AD) and Immadi Narasimha (1491 AD-1505 AD): Both were minors during the regency of Narsa Nayaka. Vosco Da Gama landed in Calicut during his reign in 1498 AD.

Tirumal (1491 AD) and Immadi Narasimha (1491 AD-1505 AD)

• Ruled under the regency of Narsa Nayaka. • Vasco Da Gama came to India (Calicut) during the reign of Immadi in 1498 AD. • Ultimately, a new dynasty called Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vir Narasimha.

The Tuluva Dynasty (1505 AD-1570 AD)

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• Vira Narsimha (1505 AD-1509 AD): Vir Narsimha, the son of Narsa Nayaka, became the king after assassination of Immadi Narsimha, the last Saluva ruler. • Krishnadevaraya (1509 AD-1529 AD) was the greatest ruler of the dynasty. Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes writes high about him. Barbosa also came as a traveller. Also Friar Luis, the ambassador of Portuguese Governor, Albuquerque, resided in his court. • His period was known as golden age of Telugu literature. • Krishnadevaraya maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portuguese Governor. He won Orissa (Gajapati Kingdom) for Vijayanagar and Vijayanagar emerged strongest during his reign. • He built the Vijaya Mahal the Hazara Rama temple and the Vithal Swami temple. • H e t o o k t h e t i t l e s o f Y a v a n a r a j a Sthapnacharya and Abhinava Bhoja. He is also known as Andhra Bhoja and Andhra Pitamaha. • His court was adorned by the Ashtadiggajas (the eight celebrated poets of Telugu). • Krishnadevaraya was a contemporary of Babur. • His political ideas are contained in the Telugu book Amuktamalayada. He also wrote a Sanskrit Drama Jambavati Kalyanam. • Achyutadevaraya (1529 AD-1542 AD): Krishnadevaraya nominated his brother Achyutadevaraya as the successor. During his reign, Farano, a Portuguese horsetrader, visited Vijayanagar. • Venkata (1542 AD) and Sadashiva Raya (1543 AD-1576 AD): Sadashiva was the last ruler of the dynasty. Real power was exercised by Rama Raja/Raya and his two brothers. The Battle of Talikota (also called the Battle of Rakshasa-Tangadi) was fought on 23rd January, 1565 between the alliances of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda and Bidav at one side. Rama Raja was taken prisoner and executed by Hussain Nizam Shah I.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Caesar Frederick, a Portuguese traveller, visited Vijayanagar in 1567 AD-1568 AD during the reign of Sadashiva Raya.

The Aravidu Dynasty (1570 AD-1650 AD)

• Tirumala Raya, the brother of Rama Raja, ruled in the name of Sadashiva Raya. He shifted the capital to Penugonda.

Administration

• The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas. All were of gold mixed with alloy. The Tar was a silver coin. The Jital was a copper coin.

Society

• It was the only empire in Medieval India which employed women in the state services. Also, it was the only state that promoted widow remarriage.

Architecture

• The Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style of architecture called Provida style. The large number and prominence of pillars and piers are some of the distinct features. • Other important features were the Mandapa or open pavilion with a raised platform, meant for seating deities and Amman Shrine. • The Vijayanagar rulers started the practice of inscribing the stories of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata on the walls of the various temples. Vithalswami and Hazara Rama Temple are examples of this type of wall inscription. Nayankara System • Under this system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. The Iyengar System • It involved the constitution of a 12–member officials group by the Centre to maintain administration at the village level. These officials, called the Iyengars, were village functionaries and constituted of groups of families.

Bahamani Kingdom • The Bahamani kingdom of Deccan was founded by Hasan Gangu. The capital was Gulbarga. Hasan Gangu took the title of Alauddin Hasan Bahaman Shah and became the first king of Bahaman in 1347 AD. • Mahmud Shah I (1358 AD-1375 AD), son of Bahaman Shah, established a council consisting of eight ministers and decentralised his provincial administration. He fought with Vijayanagar. • Firoz Shah: He inducted Hindus in his administration to a large extent. He built an observatory at Daulatabad. He founded the city of Firozabad on the bank of river Bhima. Firoz defeated Devaraya. • Firoz Shah was succeeded by his brother Ahmad Shah I (1422 AD-1436 AD). He shifted his capital from Gulbarga to Bidar. Ahmad Shah is known as Wali or saint due to his association with Gesu Daraz. • Bidriware was introduced in his period. • Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Alauddin II (1436 AD-1458 AD) and Humayun. Humayun (1458 AD-1461 AD) was so cruel that he got the title of ‘Zalim’. • Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461 AD-1463 AD) and then by Muhammad Shah-III. Nikitin, a Russian merchant visited Bidar during his reign. • The last ruler of Bahamani kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah. • Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar. Founder– Ahmad Nizam Shah, later annexed by Shahjahan. • Adil Shahis of Bijapur (1490 AD-1686 AD), founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb. Greatest ruler of the kingdom was Ibrahim Adil Shah. • He introduced Dakhini in place of Persian language. Another ruler Muhammad Adil Shah built the Gol Gumbad. • Imad Shahis of Berar (1490 AD-1574 AD) founded by Fateullah Daulatabad as capital. • Qutub Shahis of Golconda (1518 AD1687 AD) founded by Quli Qutub Shah. He built the famous Golkonda fort and made it his capital.

Indian History

• Muhammad Quli Qutab Shah was the greatest of all. He founded the city of Hyderabad. He built the famous Charminar. The kingdom was annexed by Aurangzeb (1687 AD). • Barid Shahis of Bidar was founded by Ali Barid. • Sufis were organised 12 orders of silsila. • Sufi orders are broadly divided into Bashara, that is those which followed the Islamic law (sharia), and Beshara, that is those which were not bound by it.

Other Important Rulers

• Prithviraj Chauhan (1178 AD-1192 AD): He ruled over Delhi and Agra and fought two important battles, viz. First Battle of Tarain was fought in 1191 AD between the forces of Prithviraj Chauhan and Mohammad Ghori, in which the latter was defeated. Second Battle of Tarain was fought in 1192 AD when Mohammad Ghori again invaded India, in which Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated. • Jaichand Garhwal/Rathore (1169 AD1194 AD): He was the last Rajput king, who was also defeated and killed by Mohammad Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1194 AD). • Rana Kumbha, the Sisodiya ruler of Mewar (1433 AD-1468 AD): Rana Kumbha was a famous ruler of Mewar. He defeated Mohammad Khilji and erected the Tower of victory (Vijay-Stambha) in Chittor. His successors Rana Sangram Singh (Rana Sanga) and Rana Pratap were also great kings of Mewar state. • Salient features of the Rajputa Kingdoms: In the field of culture, many great fortresses and temples were built by them such as Khajuraho (MP), Lingaraja temple (Bhubaneswar, Orissa), Sun temple (Konark, Orissa), Jagannath temple (Puri, Orissa) and Dilwara temple (Mount Abu).

Some Important Rajputs • Jaichand Garhwal/Rathore (1169 AD1194 AD) assisted Muhammad Ghori against Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd Battle of Terrain (1192 AD), but was killed by Ghori in the Battle of Chandawar (1129 AD).

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• Bhoja Parmar (1010 AD-1055 AD) of Malwa was known as Kaviraj. He wrote Ayurvedasaravasva (work on medicine) and Samrangana Sutradhar (work on architecture). • Architectural works of the period: i. Kendriya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho was built by Chandellas of Bundelkhand (1000 AD). ii. Dilwara Temple at Mount Abu (West Indian style of architecture) built by Siddharaja Solanki of Gujarat. iii. Angkorvat Temple at Cambodia was built by Suryavarman II. It is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and was built on Dravidian model.

Literary Works • Kathasaritasagara–Somadeva. • Vikramdeva Charita–Bilhana (Biography of Chalukya King Vikramdeva VI). • Rajtarangini–Kalhana (History of Kashmir) • Gita Govinda–Jayadeva (in Sanskrit)

Religious Movements in the 15th-16th Centuries Bhakti Movement

• The Bhakti had been initiated in South India by popular saint poets called Alvars. • It declined in the tenth century but was again revived as philosophical and ideological by Acharyas like Ramanuja, whose disciple Ramananda took it to North India. • They considered that God has either form (Saguna) or was formless (Nirguna). • Main Features: 1. Discarded rituals and sacrifices, 2. Emphasised purity of heart and mind, humanism and devotions, 3. Monotheistic in nature, 4. God has either form (Saguna) or be formless (Nirguna), 5. An egalitarian movement, 6. Denounced casteism, 7. Saint preached in local languages.

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Bhakti Saints Ramanuja • The Vaishnava saint from South India. The earliest exponent of Bhakti movement and Vishitadvaita philosophy. Guru Nanak • Founder of Sikh faith in India. • He was born in Talwandi, now Nankana Sahib. • He laid emphasis on one God. He was against idolatry, undertaking pilgrimage and other ritualistic conducts. • Nanak began the practice of Community Kitchen–Guru-ka-Langar. • He named the formless God as Akal Purush. • His teachings are compiled in Adi‑Granth. Vallabhacharya • He laid on the worship of Krishna as an incarnation of the Almighty God. • Lived in the court of Krishna Deva of Vijayanagar. • He founded the Pushti sect. Ramananda • The founder of Bhakti movement in North India. • He was greatly influenced by the teachings of Ramanuja. • Among his disciples were Raidas the cobbler, Kabir the weaver, Dhanna the farmer, Sena the barber and Pipa the Rajput. Kabir • Represents Virguna Bhakti tradition. His followers organised themselves as Kabir panthis. • His teachings contained Dohas. • He was not merely a Bhakti poet but also a social reformer. • He advocated the Bhaktimarga. Chaitanya • Regarded as the founder of modern Vaishnav Sect of Bengal. • He preached during the reign of Sultan Alauddin Shah of Bengal and Gajpati ruler of Orissa. • His biography is Chaitanya Charitmala. • Philosophy of Chaitanya was called Achityabhedaveda.

• His disciple considered him as incarnation of Lord Krishna. Surdas • Disciple of Vallabhacharya and devotee of Lord Krishna and Radha. • He wrote Sur Suravali, Shitya Ratna and Sursagar (belonged to Saguna School). Shankar Dev • Chaitanya of Assam, monotheist and worshipped Krishna. Madhavacharya • According to him, the release from transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion. • Purandar Das (1480 AD-1564 AD): The foremost and the most prolific Vaishnav saint-composer in Karnataka. • Mirabai (1498 AD-1546 AD): The Rathore princess of Merata and daughter-in-law of Rana Sanga of Mewar. The most well-known woman Bhakti saint of the Krishna cult of Vaishnavism. Vidyapati • Maithili saint poet. • He wrote Padavali, e.g., thousands of love ballads on Radha and Krishna. Narsingh Mehta • He wrote songs in Gujarati, depicting the love of Radha and Krishna. • He authored Mahatma Gandhi’s Bhajan “Vaishnav Jan Toh Tene Kahiye Je.” Shankara Deva • Vaishnava saint from Assam. • Tulsidas (1532 AD-1623 AD): The greatest saint-poet of the Ram Bhakti cult of Vaishnavism. He was the celebrated author of Ramcharitmanas, Kaviawali and Gitawali. • Dadu Dayal (1544 AD-1603 AD): A Nirguna Bhakti saint and founder of the Dadu Panth. • Thyagaraja (1767 AD-1847 AD): The greatest saint-composer of Karnataka music. He adorned God in the form of Rama, the incarnation of Vishnu.

Bhakti Saints of Maharashtra Dharma

• Jnanesvara/Jnanadeva (1271 AD 1296 AD): The fountain head of the Bhakti

Indian History

• •

movement in Maharashtra, founder of Marathi language and literature, wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, called the Bhavarthadipika, more commonly known as Jnaneshvari. Namadeva (1270 AD-1350 AD): A contemporary of Jnanesvara. The object of his devotion was Vithoba or Vithal (identified with Vishnu) of Pandharpur. The cult of Vithoba or Vithal known as Varkari sect was founded by Namadeva. Eknath (1533 AD-1599 AD): A great scholar saint from Maharashtra, who wrote a commentary on the Ramayana called the Bhavartha Ramayana. Tukaram (1598 AD-1650 AD): He was the greatest Bhakti poet from Maharashtra, wrote devotional poems, known as Abhangas. Ramdas (1608 AD-1681 AD): The last great saint poet from Maharashtra. Dasabodha is the compilation of his writing and sermons. Main Religious Leaders/Sects

Ramanujacharya Vishishtadvaita

Shree Sect

Madhavacharya

Dvaitvada

Brahma Sect

Vallabhacharya

Shuddhadvaitvada Rudra Sect

Shankaracharya Advaitavada

Sufi Movement

• Sufism is the mystical movement in Islam. • The Sufi doctrine was based on union with God. Sufi Terminology Sufi words

Meaning

Saikh/Murid/Pir

Spritual Teacher

Tasawwuf

Sufism

Khanqah

The hospice

Sama

Musical recital

Raksa

Dance

Fana

Self annihilation

Khalifah

Successor

Main Features

1. Organised in different Silsilas (orders). 2. Sufis aimed at service of mankind.

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3. Eager for Hindu-Muslim unity and cultural synthesis. 4. Opposed to orthodoxy. 5. Discouraged materialistic life.

Sufi Order Chisti Silsila • The Chisti order was founded by Khwaja Abdal Chisti in Heart. It was brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti (1141‑1236). • Khwaja’s other disciple Qutub-din-Baktiyar Kaki established Chisti Silsila in Delhi. Qutub Minar is named after him. • Kaki’s disciple Baba Farid Ganj-e-shakar based himself in Ajodhan. • His famous disciple was Nizamuddin Auliya in Delhi. Also known as Mehboob-e-Illahi. • Last important Chisti sufi of Delhi was Nasserudin Chirag-e-Delhi. • B u r h a n u d d i n G h a r i b w a s t a k e n t o Daulatabad by Mohd Bin Tughlaq. • Gesu Daraz was important sufi saint of Deccan. Suhrawardi Silsila • It was founded by Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. Popular in Multan, Lahore and Sindh. • Considered as more orthodox than Chisti. • Baha-ud-din Zakaria was the greatest saint of this silsila. • Accepted royal patronage and donations. • Baha-ud-din Zakaria invited Iltutmish to attack Qubacha in Multan and was given the title of Shaikh-ul-Islam by Iltutmish. Naqshbandi Silsila • This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah during the later years of Akbar’s reign. • His disciple Sheikh Ahmed Sarhindi called himself Mujaddin (renovator of I millennium of Islam). • Sheikh Ahmad Sarhindi propounded the concept of Wahadid-ul-Shujud and was imprisoned by Jahangir. • Aurangzeb was initiated into Naqshbandiya order.

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Qadariya Silsila • Shah Niamatullah Qadri was probably the first notable saint of this order to enter India but it was Syed Muhammad Jilaui, who organised it on an effective basis. • Miyamir or Mir Mohd. Was an important saint of the silsila. • Dara Shukoh and Jahanara joined Qadariya silsila under the influence of Mullan Shah Badakshi. Firdausi Silsila Sheikh Badruddin of Samark first established it in Delhi, but later on it moved to Bihar and became the most influential mystic older. Sattariya Silsila It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattari. Kubrawiya Silsila It was introduced by Mir Sayed Ali Hamdani in Kashmir. Rishi Movement Sheikh Nuruddin began the rishi movement in Kashmir which was synthesis of Kashmiri Shaivism and Islamic thought. Roshaniya Movement It was founded by Bayazid Ansari who influenced tribal communities of NorthWest frontiers and instigated their rebellious activities, which created trouble for Mughal rulers from Akbar to Aurangzeb. Mahadi Movement It was founded by Sheikh Mohd. Mahadi of Jaunpur during Sikander Lodhi’s time.

Mughal Period (1526 AD-1540 AD and 1555 AD-1857 AD) Babur (1526 AD-1530 AD)

• The foundation of the Mughal rule in India was laid by Babur in 1526 AD. • He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi, subedar of Punjab, Alam Khan Lodhi uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi and Rana Sanga. • He was a descendant of Timur (from the side of his father) and Chengiz Khan (from the side of his mother).

• Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat on April 21, 1526 AD and established the Mughal dynasty. • In 1527 AD, he defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar at Khanwa. • In 1528 AD, he defeated Medini Rai of Chaneri at Chanderi. • In 1529 AD, he defeated Muhammad Lodhi (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) at Ghaghra. • Babur was the first ruler to entitle himself ‘Badshah’. • His victory led to rapid popularisation of gunpowder and artillery in India. • After the Kushanas, he was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian empire. • He died in 1530 AD, buried at Aram Bagh in Agra. Later, his body was taken to Aram Bagh at Kabul. • He adopted Tughluma and flanking party system and was the first to use gunpowder and artillery in India. • He wrote his autobiography Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language. Tuzuk-i-Baburi was translated in Persian (named Baburnama) by Abdur Rahim Khankhana and in English by Madam Beveridge. • He compiled two anthologies of poems, Diwan (in Turkish language) and Mubaiyan (in Persian language). He also wrote Risal-iUsaz or Letters of Babur. Early Invasions of Babur on India 1518–19 Bajaura, and Bhera 1519 Peshawar 1520 Bajaura, Bheva Sialkot 1524 Lahore, Dipalpur and Sultanpur

Humayun (1530 AD-1540 AD and 1555 AD-1556 AD)

• He was the son of Babur and ascended the throne in 1530 AD. His succession was challenged by his brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari along with the Afghans. • His first campaign was against Kalinjar. • Battle of Chausa (1539 AD) was fought between Sher Shah and Humayun’s army. Humayun was badly defeated and escaped. He was saved by Nizam.

Indian History

• Battle of Kannauj (Bilgrama) (1540 AD): Humayun was again defeated by Sher Shah and had to flee. • He wondered in Sindh during the reign of Shah Hussain Arghuna and then reached to the Iranian Court. • Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him. The Mughals occupied Lahore without any march towards Delhi. After the battle of Machhiwara against the Afghans and battle of Sirhind against Sikandar Shah, Humayun’s second coronation was organised. • His sister, Gulbadan Begum wrote his biography Humayunama. • He built Din Panah at Delhi as his second capital.

Sher Shah Suri and the Afghan Empire (1540 AD-1555 AD)

• His real name was Farid. • He joined the Babar Khan Lohani’s service and then was appointed as the Deputy Governor of Bihar. • He usurped the throne as ‘Hazarat-i-Ala’. • He gained Chunar by marrying one widow Lad Malika. • Battle of Chausa: In 1539 AD, he captured Chausa from Humayun. He assumed the title of Sher Shah as the emperor. • He also issued coins and Khutba was read in his name. The whole area from Bengal to Benares was under his empire. • Battle of Samel (1544 AD): Defeated Rajput forces of Marwar. • The campaign of Bundelkhand was the last campaign of his life.

Administration

• He introduced the principles of local respo­ nsibility for local crimes.

Revenue System

• Land was measured using the Sikandari-gaz. • The peasant was given a Patta and a Qabuliyat, which fixed the peasants’ rights and taxes.

Others

• He introduced silver Rupiya. • The roads built by Sher Shah are called ‘the arteries of the empire’. Sarais were built

• • • • • • •

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on the road. He restored the old imperial road, Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon in Bengal to Peshawar. He built Purana Qila, along with Grand Trunk Road. He also built his tomb at Sasaram in Bihar. Malik-Mohammed Jayasi wrote Padmavat (Hindi) during his reign. Tarikh-i-Sher Shani was written by Abbas Khan Sarwani, his court historian. He introduced the principle of local responsibility for local crimes. He built Purana Quila in Delhi. He was buried in Sasaram. Sher Shah was succeeded by Islam Shah (1545 AD-1554 AD): Islam Shah was succeeded by Muhammad Adil Shah (1554 AD-1555 AD).

Akbar (1556 AD-1605 AD)

• Akbar, the eldest son of Humayun, ascended the throne under the title of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi at the young age of 14 at Kalanaur, Punjab and his tutor Bairam Khan was appointed as the regent. • Second Battle of Panipat (5th November, 1556) was fought between Hemu (the Hindu General of Muhammad Adil Shah) and Bairam Khan (the regent of Akbar). Hemu was defeated, captured and slained by Bairam Khan. • He also ended the interference from Petticoat Government (1560 AD-1562 AD) represented by Maham Anaga and Adham Khan Junta. • The Rajputa kingdom of Mewar put up a fierce defence under Rana Uday Singh (1537 AD-1572 AD) and his son Rana Pratap (1572 AD-1597 AD). • Most of the Rajput kings recognised the supremacy of Akbar except Rana Pratap Singh and his son Amar Singh (Sisodya Rajputs of Mewar capital, Chittor). • The Battle of Haldighati (1576 AD) was fought between Rana Pratap of Mewar and Mughal army led by Man Singh of Amer. Rana Pratap was defeated. • Akbar conquered Malwa in 1561 AD defeating Baz Bahadur.

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• The two powerful forts of Rajasthan– Ranthambhor and Chittor (Rana Udai Singh guarded by Jaimal) were captured by the Mughals. • Akbar’s Deccan campaign began with the siege of Ahmadnagar (defended by Chand Bibi). • Akbar’s last campaign was against Asirgarh resulting into annexation of Khandesh (1601). • Akbar followed the policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. • He won Gujarat in 1572. In order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat, Akbar built Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri. • Raja Man Singh conquered Bihar, Bengal and Orissa for him. • In 1586 AD, Akbar conquered Kashmir and in 1593 AD, he conquered Sindh. • At the time of Akbar’s death in 1605 AD, his empire included Kashmir, Sindh and Kandahar, and extended as far as the Godavari in the Deccan. • Akbar proclaimed a new religion, Din‑i‑Ilahi, in 1581 AD. • Birbal was the only Hindu who followed this new religion Din-i-Ilahi. However, it did not become popular. • Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Lahore Fort, Allahabad Fort and Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi. • Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas) also lived during Akbar’s period. • When Akbar died, he was buried at Sikandara near Agra. • Akbar is considered the real founder of the Mughal empire in India. • He was the first Mughal ruler who divorced religion from politics. • Akbar gave Mughal India one official language (Persian). Navratnas in Akbar’s Court Abul Fazal

He was the Wazir of Akbar. He wrote Akbarnama.

Faizi Abul

His famous work Lilavati is on Mathematics.

Tansen

He served as the court musician to King Ramchandra of Mewar and was sent in Akbar’s court. He accepted Islam at the hands of great Sufi saint Sheikh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwalior.

Birbal

His actual name was Mahesh Das. He was conferred the title of Raja by Akbar.

Raja Todarmal

His revenue collection arrangement is called Todarmal’s bandobast.

Raja Man Singh

He was the Raja of Amber, a Mansabdar and trusted General of Akbar. He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well-known battle of Haldighati.

Abdul Rahim

He was a poet and the son of Bairam Khan, known for his Hindi couplets.

Faqir Azio Din

He was the chief advisor of Akbar.

Important Aspects of Akbar’s Rule

• He abolished Jaziya and pilgrimage tax and forcible conversion of prisoners of war. • He believed in Sulh-i-Kul, that is peace for all. • He built an Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri to discuss religious matters. • To curb the dominance of Ulema, Akbar introduced a new Khutba written by Faizi and proclaimed Mazharnamah in 1579 AD, which made him the final interpreter of Islamic law (Mujtahid Imam-i-Adil) in case of any controversies. It made him Amir-ulMomin (leader of the faithful) and Amir-i-Adil (a just ruler). • Akbar established the painting karkhana, headed by Abdus Samad. • Ralph Fitch (1585 AD) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court. • Abul Fazal wrote Akbarnama, the appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari. • Mansabdari System was another feature of administration during Akbar’s reign to organise nobility as well as the army. • He was the first Mughal ruler to separate religion from politics. • Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti blessed Akbar with a son who was named Salim (Jahangir). Akbar shifted his court to Fatehpur Sikri from Agra in honour of the saint. • Birbal was killed in the battle with Yusufzai Tribe (1586 AD). • Abul Fazal was murdered by Bir Singh Bundela (1601 AD).

Indian History

• Persian was made the official language of the Mughal empire. • He culminated ‘Din-i-Ilahi’, which recognised no prophets.

Jahangir (1605 AD-1627 AD)

• Salim, son of Akbar, came to the throne after Akbar’s death in 1605 AD. • He was given proper education by his tutor Rahim Khankhana. • In 1587 AD, he married to Jodhabai or Jagat Gosain, daughter of Udai Singh, who gave birth to prince Khusro (Shahjahan). He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings. • The eldest son of Jahangir, Khusro revolted against him but was suppressed. Khusro received patronage of Guru Arjun Dev (5th Sikh Guru). Guru Arjun Dev was executed for his blessings to the rebel prince. • He established Zanjir-i-Adal (i.e. Chain of Justice) at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice. • In 1611 AD, Jahangir married Miharun-Nisa. Later on, she was given the title Nurjahan. Nurjahan exercised tremendous influence over the state affairs. She was made the official Padshah Begum. • In 1608 AD, Captain William Hawkins, a representative of East India Company, came to Jahangir’s court. Sir Thomas Roe, an ambassador of King James I of England, also came to his court. Jahangir granted permission to the English to establish a trading port at Surat. • A political triumph during Jahangir reign was the submission of Rana Amar Singh of Mewar (1615 AD). Malik Amber ceded back to the Mughals the territory of Balaghat (Maharashtra). • His greatest failure was loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622 AD. • Pietxa Valle, famous traveller came during his reign. • Production of tobacco (brought by the Portuguese) started in his reign. • He wrote his memories Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. • He was buried in Lahore.

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Shahjahan (1628 AD-1658 AD)

• His real name was Khurram. He was the youngest prince to be appointed as governor of Deccan at the age of 15. • He was best known for his Deccan and foreign policies. • His beloved wife Mumtaj Mahal (original name Arzumand Bano) died in 1631 AD. To perpetuate her memory, he built the Taj Mahal at Agra in 1632 AD-1653 AD. • Nizam Shahi’s dynasty of Ahmadnagar was brought under Mughal control (1633 AD) by Shahjahan. The Deccan Sultanate of Bijapur and Golconda accepted his suzerainty in 1636 AD. • The Portuguese established their control over Satgaon through a Shahi farman. Shahjahan ordered Qasim Khan in 1532 AD to drive the Portuguese out of Hughli. • P e r s i a w r e s t e d K a n d a h a r f r o m t h e Mughals in 1649 AD. Shahjahan failed to recover Kandahar. • Shahjahan was the second Indian ruler to invade Central Asia. • Two French travellers Bernier and Tavernier and the Italian traveller Nicolo Manucci visited during his reign. Peter Mundi described the famine that occurred during Shahjahan’s reign. His reign is considered as Golden Age of the Mughal Empire. • Shahjahan’s reign is said to have marked the pinnacle of the Mughal dynasty and empire. • The Red Fort, Jama Masjid and Taj Mahal are some of the magnificent structures built during his reign. • Shahjahan was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in the Agra Fort, where he died in captivity in 1666 AD. He was buried in the Taj (Agra).

War of Succession

• Battle of Bahadurgarh, February 1658 AD: It was fought between Shuja and Dara, Shuja was defeated. • Battle of Dharmat, April 1658 AD: Combined forces of Aurangzeb and Murad defeated Dara. • Battle of Samugarh, May 1658 AD: Dara led Mughal forces on behalf of Shahjahan

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against Aurangzeb. In this decisive battle, Shahjahan was put into prison by Aurangzeb in the Agra Fort. • Battle of Khanjawa, December 1658 AD: It was fought between Aurangzeb and Shuja, Shuja was defeated and he fled to Arkan. • Battle of Devtrai, March 1659 AD: Dara was defeated and executed by Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb (1658 AD-1707 AD)

• Aurangzeb defeated Dara at Dharmat (1658 AD), Samugarh (1658 AD) and Deorai, in which Samugarh was decisive one and Deorai was the last one. • After victory, Aurangzeb was crowned at Delhi under the title Alamgir. He died in February, 1707 in Ahmadnagar. • Aurangzeb captured Guru Teg Bahadur, the 9th Guru of Sikhs in 1675 AD and executed him when he refused to embrace Islam. The 10th and last Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, son of Guru Teg Bahadur, organised his followers into a community of warriors called Khalsa to fight against the Muslims. • Guru Gobind Singh was assassinated by an Afghan at Nander in Deccan. Banda Bairagi, a trusted disciple successor of Guru Gobind Singh, continued the war against Mughals. • Shivaji was the most powerful Maratha king and an arch enemy of Aurangzeb. He died in 1680 AD and was succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who was executed by Aurangzeb in 1689 AD. Sambhaji was succeeded by his brother Rajaram and after his death in 1700 AD, his widow Tarabai carried on the movements. • The Mughal conquests reached a climax during Aurangzeb’s reign as Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686 AD and 1687 AD, respectively. • Under him, the Mughal empire reached its greatest extent and the largest single state ever known in India. • He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins, also forbade sati, and Jharokha-darshan. He ended the celebration of Navroz and, in 1679 AD, reimposed Jaziya.

• Mutasib (regulation of moral conduct) was appointed. He ended use of almanacs and weighing of the emperor. Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa‑i-Alamgiri. • The Hindu Mansabdar however maintained his high proportion during his rule. • He died in 1707 AD and was buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad) near Aurangabad. • He built “Bibi ka Maqbara” similar to Taj Mahal in Aurangabad. • He was called Zinda Pir, the living saint. • Decline of the Mughal Empire: After Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire rapidly declined. • J a t revolted under G o k l a R a j a r a m and Churaman. • First Afghan Rebellion was by Yusuf Shahi Tribes of Afghanistan of Roshni Sect. • Second Afghan Rebellion led by Ajmal Khan. • He annexed Marwar is 1678 AD. The campaign was led by Akbar II against Durgadas, General of Ajit Singh. • Bijapur and Golconda were annexed in 1686 AD and 1687 AD, respectively. • In 1662 AD, Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb’s able general, led the expedition against Ahoms.

Religious Policy

• Wanted to convert India from Dar‑ul‑Harb to Dar-ul-Islam. He replaced the solar calendar by Lunar Hirg.

Later Mughals Bahadur Shah-I

• Real name is Muazzam, ascended the Mughal throne with the title Bahadur Shah. He also assumed the title Shah Alam-I. • Shah Bekhabar: He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. He granted Sar Deshmukhi to Maratha and released Shahu. • He forced Ajit Singh of Marwar to submit but later recognised him as the Rana of Marwar. He defeated Banda Bahadur at Lohgarh.

Jahandar Shah

• He was the first puppet Mughal Emperor. • He introduced the evil practice of revenue faming of Ijarah.

Indian History

• Jai Singh of Amber was given the title of Mirza Raja Sawai and Ajit Singh was awarded the title of Maharaja. He abolished Jaziya. • He was defeated by his Nephew Farrukhsiyar in Agra.

Farrukhsiyar

• He ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. • B a n d a B a h a d u r w a s e x e c u t e d a t Gurdaspur. Farrukhsiyar was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with the help of Marathas, in 1719 AD.

Muhammad Shah

• Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers (king-makers). • Nizam-ul-Mulk was appointed as the Wazir but he relinquished the post in 1722, and marched towards Deccan and found an autonomous state named Hyderabad. • During his reign, Bengal acquired virtual independence during the governorship of Murshid Quli Khan. • Saadat Khan (Burhan-ul-Mulk), who was appointed as Governor of Awadh, laid down the foundation of the autonomous state. • Nadir Shah invaded India in 1739 AD and defeated Muhammad in Battle of Karnal (1739 AD) and he took away Takht-i-Taus (Peacock throne) and Kohinoor diamond. • Ahmed Shah Abdali raided the kingdom for the first time during his reign. • He was a pleasure-loving king and was nicknamed Rangeela.

Ahmad Shah

• Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded Delhi many times and Punjab and Multan were ceded to him.

Alamgir II

• Ahmad Shah Abdali occupied Delhi during his reign. He defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 AD.

Shah Alam-II

• He fought the Battle of Buxar in 1765 AD and was defeated by the British. • By the Treaty of Allahabad, the emperor received the territories of Allahabad and Kara and 26 lakh annual tributes from Bengal.

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• By a farman, the emperor confirmed the English gains and granted them Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Akbar-II

• The king gave Raja Rammohan Roy the title of Raja.

Bahadur Shah-II

• He was the last Mughal Emperor: He was confined by the British in the Red Fort. • During the 1857 sepoy revolt, he was proclaimed the emperor of India by the rebellions. He was deported to Rangoon and died there. • He used to write Shairis under the pet-name of Zafar. Later Mughal Emperors’ List Bhahadur Shah-I

1707–1712

Jahandar Shah

1712–1713

Farrukh Siyar

1713–1719

Muhammad Shah

1719–1748

Ahmad Shah

1748–1754

Alamgir-II

1754–1758

Shah Alam-II

1758–1806

Akbar-II

1806–1837

Bhahadur Shah-II

1837–1857

Socio-enonomic Conditions during the Mughal Rule

• Society: Society was stratified into several classes. Both sati and child marriage were readily practised. Purdah system was in vogue both among Hindus and Muslims. • Economy: Both trade and commerce flourished with the European nations. • P o r t s : S u r a t , C a m b a y , C o c h i n a n d Masulipattanam.

Provincial Administration

• Mughal empire was divided into 12 Subas province. After expansion of the empire, it became 15 during Akbar, 11 during Jahangir, 22 during Shahjahan and 21 during Aurangzeb. • Subedar: Head of the province (Governor). • Provincial Diwan: Deal with finance directly responsible to central diwan.

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District or Sarkar

• Fauzdar: Administrative head of the Sarkar. • Amil/Amalguzar: Collecting revenues and pattrolling the roads. • Kotwal: Duty was to maintain law and order in Sarkar besides, trial of criminal cases and regulations of prices.

Pargana

• Siqdar: Administrative head of the pargana. • Amin/Qaungo: They were revenue officials.

Village

• Lambardar: Village headmen • Patwari: Village Accountant

Administration

• Wazir: The Prime Minister. • Diwan: His responsibilities were in three fields: executive, revenue and finance. • Mir Bakshi: He was the head of the military department. • Mir Sama or Khan Samas: In-charge of the royal household. • Sadar-us-sadar: In-charge of religious matters, religious endowments and charities. • Chief Qazi: Head of the judiciary department after the king. • Barids: Intelligence officers. • Mustaufi: Auditor General. • Mughal empire was divided into Subas, which were further subdivided into Sarkar, Pargana and Gram. • Akbar introduced Mansabdari system. The term Mansab indicates the rank of its holder. Mansabdari was both civil and military. • Mansabdari System (1595 AD-1596 AD) showed a noble’s civil and military capacities. In its broader aspect, the mansab or rank awarded to an individual fixed both his status in the official hierarchy and his salary. • Twin ranks Zat and Sawar were allotted. • Zabti System was based on the measurement and assessment of land. • Ijara System: The government began contracting the land with the middlemen, also known as revenue farmers, who were supposed to pay fixed amount to the government. However, they were left free to

• • • • •

collect whatever they could from the farmers, leading to their exploitation. According to the payment mode, they were of two types: Naqdi and Jagirdar. Jahangir added asaph-sih-asaph system. Shahjahan added Jama-Dami or Mahanz Zagir (monthly scale) system. Methods of revenue collection in practice, viz. Kankut Rai and Zabti. Dashala System of Raja Todarmal: Under this system, the average produce of different crops was calculated at the average price prevailing over the last 10 years. One-third of the average produce was the state’s share. For the measurement of land, ‘Bigha’ was adopted as the standard unit. Mugal Architecture

Ruler

Architecture Built

Babur

Mosques at Kabuligarh (Panipat) and at Sambhalgarh

Humayun

City of Dinpannah, Jamali mosque and mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi

Haji Begum (wife of Humayun)

Humayun Tomb

Akbar

Agra Fort; Jahangiri Mahal in Agra fort based on design of Manmandir; Lahore Palace, Allahabad Fort, temple of GovindDeva at Vrindavana and several buildings at Fatehpur Sikri that included Panch Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Jold Habbis Palace Diwan-iAam, Buland Darwaja

Jahangir

Moti Masjid at Lahore, own Mausoleum at Shahdara

Nurjahan

Itamduddaulas marble tomb at Agra in Pietra Dura Technique

Indian History Shahjahan

At Agra–Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid, Khaas Mahal, Sheesh Mahal, Musamman Burz At Delhi– Jama Masjid, Red Fort (Diwan-i-Khas and Rang Mahal) Others–Shalimar Bagh (Lahore), city of Shahjahanabad (Red Fort and Takht-i-Taus)

Aurangzeb

Moti Masjid at Delhi, Bibi ka Makbara, Badshai mosque at Lahore

• Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Masjid in Lahore. • Humayun had taken into his service two master painters, Mir Syed Ali and Abdus Samad. • Daswani and Basawan were the two famous painters in Akbar’s court. • A b d u l H a s a n , U s t a d M a n s u r a n d Bishandas were the three famous painters in Jahangir’s court. Mugal period literature Schulars Khan Abdur Rehman

Works Translated Tuzuki-iBaburi from Turki to persian during Akbar’s reign

Abul Fazal

Ain-i-Akbari, Akbarnama

Abdul Qadir Badauni

Kitab-ul-Ahidish, Tarikhi-Alffi Muntakhab-ulTawarikh.

Khawaja Nizamuddin

Tabaqat-i-Akbari

Jahangir

Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri

Hamid

Padshah Namaah

Khafi Khan

Muntakhab-i-Lubab

Dara Shikoh

Translated Upnishadas and Bhagvada Gita, Safinat-ul-Auliya

Mirza Muhammad

Alamgirnamah

Ishwar Das

Fatut-i-Alamgir

Muhammad Salim

Shahjahanama

Mughal Culture

• Babur built two mosques, one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other at Sambhal in Rohilkhand. • Humayun’s tomb was built by his widow Haji Begum. • An unusual building at Fatehpur Sikri is Panch Mahal. • Buland Darwaza (built after Gujarat victory) formed the main entrance to Fatehpur Sikri. • Salim Chishti’s Tomb (redone in marble by Jahangir) is the first Mughal building in pure marble). Palace of Birbal and Palace of Tansen are also inside the Fatehpur Sikri. • Akbar also began to build his own tomb at Sikandara, which was later completed by Jahangir. • Nurjahan built Itimad-ud-daulah/Mirza Ghiyas Beg’s marble tomb at Agra, which is noticeable for the first usage of Pietra Dura technique. • Jahangir built Moti Masjid in Lahore and his mausoleum at Shahdara (Lahore). • Shahjahan also built the Jama Masjid. • Some of the important buildings built by Shahjahan at Agra are Moti Masjid (the only mosque of marble), Khaas Mahal and Musamman Burj. • He laid the foundation of Shahjahanabad in 1637 AD, where he built the Red Fort and Takht-i-Taus (Peacock throne). • The only monument associated with Aurangzeb is Bibi ka Maqbara, which is the tomb of his wife R a b b i a - u d Daura, in Aurangabad.

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Maratha State (1674 AD-1720 AD) and Maratha Confederate (1720 AD-1818 AD) Shivaji (1674 AD-1680 AD)

• Father–Shivaji Bhonsle; Mother–Jija Bai, Religious Teacher–Samarth Ramdas. • Shivaji inherited the Jagir of Poona from his father. • After the death of his guardian, Dadaji Kondadev, he assumed the full charge of his Jagir. • Afzal Khan was deputed by Adil Shah (ruler of Bijapur) to punish Shivaji; but later Afzal Khan was killed by Shivaji in 1659 AD.

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• Shaista Khan, governor of Deccan, was deputed by Aurangzeb to put down the rising power of Shivaji in 1660 AD. Shivaji lost Poona. He made a bold attack on Shaista Khan (1663 AD) and plundered Surat (1664 AD) and later Ahmadnagar. • Raja Jai Singh of Amber was then appointed by Aurangzeb to put down Shivaji (1665 AD). Jai Singh succeeded in besieging Shivaji in the fort of Purandhar. Consequently, the Treaty of Purandhar (1665 AD) was signed. • In 1674 AD, Shivaji was coronated at the capital Raigarh and assumed the title of Haindava Dharmodharak. • He conquered Karnataka during 1677 AD-1680 AD.

Shivaji’s Administration

• Shivaji was helped by the Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). Shivaji’s Ashtapradhan • Peshwa: Also called ‘Mukhya Pradhan’, Finance and general administration; later he became Prime Minister and assumed great importance. • Majumdar: Accountant general during the rule of the Peshwas; he later became revenue and finance minister. • Sar-i-Naubat: Senapati or military commander; this was only an honorary post with no real military powers. • Surunavis or Sachiv: Also called chitnis, looked after correspondence. • Waqenavis: Intelligence, posts and household affairs. • Dabir or Suriiania: Master of ceremonies. • Nyayadhish: Justice. • Pandit Rao: Charities and religious affairs.

• The Kathi of Malik Ambar was adopted as the unit of measurement. • Chauth was paid to the Marathas, so far not being subjected to Maratha raids. • Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.

Sambhaji (1680 AD-1689 AD)

• Sambhaji, the elder son of Shivaji, defeated Rajaram, the younger son of Shivaji, in the war of succession. • He provided protection and support to Akbar II, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb.

Rajaram (1689 AD-1700 AD)

• He succeeded the throne with the help of the ministers at Raigarh. • Rajaram created the new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total number of ministers to nine (Pratinidhi + Ashtapradhan).

Tarabai (1700 AD-1707 AD)

• Rajaram was succeeded by his minor son Shivaji II under the guardianship of his mother Tarabai.

Shahu (1707 AD-1749 AD)

• Shahu was released by the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah. • Tarabai’s army was defeated by Shahu in the Battle of Khed (1700 AD), and Shahu occupied Satara. • Shahu’s reign saw the rise of Peshwas.

The Peshwas (1713 AD-1880 AD) Balaji Vishwanath (1713 AD-1720 AD)

• Shahu honoured him with title of ‘Sena Karta’ in 1708 AD and made him his Peshwa in 1713 AD. He became the functional head of the Maratha empire. • He concluded an agreement with the Sayyed brothers, by which the Mughal emperor, Farrukhsiyar recognised Shahu as the King of Swarajya. • H e a l s o h e l p e d S a y y e d b r o t h e r s i n overthrowing Farrukhsiyar.

Baji Rao (1720 AD-1740 AD)

• Maratha power reached its zenith under him. • Under his leadership, the Marathas compelled the Mughals first to give them the right to collect chauth of the vast areas and then to cede those areas to the Maratha kingdom. • He conquered Salsette and Bassein from the Portuguese in 1733 AD. He also defeated the

Indian History

Nizam-ul-Mulk near Bhopal and concluded the treaty of Durai Sarai, by which he got Malwa and Bundelkhand (1737 AD).

Balaji Baji Rao Nana Sahib (1740 AD-1761 AD)

• In the third Battle of Panipat in 1761 AD between the Marathas and Ahmad Shah Abdali, Viswas Rao, the son of Nana Sahib, died.

Peshwa Madhav Rao (1761 AD-1762 AD)

• Balaji Baji Rao succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao I. • After the death of Madhavrao, peshwaship had lost all its powers.

Later Peshwas

• Narayan Rao (1772 AD-1773 AD) • Sawai Madhav Rao (1773 AD-1795 AD) • Baji Rao (1795 AD-1818 AD)

Maratha Confederacy

• Under him, several Maratha families became prominent and got themselves entrenched in different parts of India. a. Gaekwad of Baroda b. The Bhonsles at Nagpur c. Holkars at Indore d. Peshwas at Poona e. Scindhias at Gwalior

Anglo-Maratha Wars

• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775 AD1782 AD): On being defeated, the British had to sign the humiliating Convention of Wadgaon (1779 AD). • British later signed Treaty of Salbai (1782 AD). • Second Anglo-Maratha war (1803 AD1806 AD): The Maratha Peshwa signed the Subsidiary Alliance Treaty of Bassein (1802 AD). • Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817 AD-1818 AD): The Marathas were decisively defeated. Important Treaties The Treaty of Purandar

1665

The Treaty of Allahabad

1765

The Treaty of Bargaon

1779

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The Treaty of Salbai

1782

The Treaty of Devgaon

1803

The Treaty of Surji Anjungaon

1803

The Treaty of Poona

1817

The Treaty of Mandsor

1818

The Treaty of Lahore

1806

The Treaty of Amritsar

1809

The Treaty of Bhairowal

1846

The Advent of Europeans Portuguese

• The Cape route was discovered from Europe to India by Vasco da Gama. • He reached the port of Calicut on May 17, 1498 AD and was received by the Hindu ruler of Calicut (known by the title of Zamorin). • This led to the establishment of trading stations at Calicut, Cochin and Cannanore. • Cochin (1502 AD) was the early capital of the Portuguese in India, later on replaced by Goa. • The first Governor of Portuguese in India was Francisco Almeida (1509 AD). He introduced “The Policy of Blue Water”. • Alfonso d’ Albuquerque arrived in India in 1503 AD and became Governor of the Portuguese in India in 1509 AD. He captured Goa from the ruler of Bijapur in 1310 AD and introduced the policy of imperialism. • Nino-da-Cunha (1529 AD-1528 AD) transferred the capital from Cochin to Goa in 1530 AD. He acquired Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat (1534 AD). • Portuguese acquired Daman in 1559 AD. They lost Hugly in 1631 AD during the reign of Shahjahan. • In 1661 AD, the Portuguese king gave Bombay to Charles II of England as dowry for marrying his sister. • First Portuguese factory was established at Calicut. • The famous Jesuit Saint, Francisco Xavier arrived in India with Martin Alfonso de’Souza (1542 AD-1545 AD). • The Marathas captured Salsette and Bassein in 1739 AD.

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• In the end, they were left only with Goa, Diu and Daman, which they retained till 1961 AD.

Coming of the Europeans • Portuguese –

1498

• English – 1600 • Dutch – 1602 • Danish – 1616 • French – 1664

Dutch

• Formation of the company in March 1602. • The Dutch East India Company established factories in India at Masulipatnam in 1605 AD, Pulicat (1610 AD), Surat (1616 AD), Bimlipatam (1641 AD), Karaikal (1645 AD), Chinsura, Kasimbazar, Patna, Balasore, Nagapatam and Cochin. • Pulicat was their main centre in India till 1690 AD, when Nagapatam replaced it. • The Dutch conceded to British after their defeat in the Battle of Sedera in 1759 AD.

English

• John Mildenhall, a merchant adventurer, was the first Englishman, who arrived in India in 1599 AD. • The Governor and company of merchants of London trading into the East Indies, popularly known as the English East India Company, were formed in 1600 AD. • Captain William Hawkins arrived at Jahangir’s court (1609 AD) to seek permission to open a factory in Surat. A farman was issued by Jahangir, permitting the English to build a factory in Surat (1613 AD). • Gerald Aungier was Bombay’s first governor from 1669 AD to 1677 AD. • Sir Thomas Roe visited Jahangir’s court (1615 AD) as an ambassador of King James I to seek permission to trade in India.

Establishment of Factories By British East India Company • The first factory was built in Surat (1608 AD). Surat was replaced by Bombay, which was acquired from Charles II on lease as the headquarters on the West coast in 1687 AD.

• In 1639 AD, Madras was obtained from Raja of Chandragiri with the permission to build a fortified factory, which was named Fort St. George. • In 1690 AD, Job Charnock established a factory at Sutanati and the Zamindari of three villages, Sutanati, Kalikata and Govindpur was acquired by the British (1698 AD). These three villages grew as the city of Calcutta. • The factory at Sutanati was fortified and named Fort William in 1700 AD. • In 1717 AD, John Surman obtained royal farman from the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar. This farman is also called the Magna Carta of the British rule in India as it gave large concessions to the company. By Danes • The Danes arrived in India in 1616 AD. They established settlement at Tranquebar (Tamil Nadu) in 1620 AD and Serampore (Bengal) in 1676 AD. Serampore was their headquarters. • They were forced to sell their settlements to British in 1854 AD. By French • The French East India Company was formed in 1664 AD by Colbert under state patronage during the reign of Louis XIV. • The first French factory was established at Surat by Francois Caron in 1668 AD and second at Masulipatnam in 1669 AD. • They occupied Mahe, Yanam and Karaikal. • The foundation of Pondicherry was laid in 1673 AD, which afterwards became its capital. They also developed a factory at Chandernagar. • The Governors, Lenoir and Dumas revived the French power in India between 1720 AD and 1742 AD and the Anglo-French conflict started with the arrival of Governor Dupleix in 1742 AD.

Ascendancy of the British—First Carnatic War (1746 AD-1748 AD)

• A war between France and England. • Nawab of Carnatic’s army was defeated by the French under Dupleix in the battle at St. Thome. Then the French besieged Madras.

Indian History

• The war ended with Treaty of Aix-laChapelle (1748 AD).

Second War (1749 AD-1754 AD)

• Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic). • War ended with Treaty of Pondicherry/ Treaty of Godehu.

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• The Siege of Arcot (1751 AD) made Clive a national hero in England.

Third War (1758 AD-1763 AD)

• French were defeated by British in the decisive Battle of Wandiwash in 1760 AD. Pondicherry was returned to France by the Treaty of Paris. • Local version of “seven-year war” in Europe. 

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Modern India Expansion of British Power Bengal

• Murshid Quli Khan (1717 AD-1727 AD): In 1717 AD, Murshid Quli Khan was appointed Bengal’s Subedar, i.e. governor by Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar. He transferred the capital of Bengal from Dacca to Murshidabad. • Shujauddin (1727 AD-1739 AD): He was granted the governorship of Bihar by Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela in 1733 AD. • Sarfaraz Khan (1739 AD-1740 AD): He was murdered by Alivardi Khan, the Deputy Governor of Bihar in 1740 AD. • Alivardi Khan (1740 AD-1756 AD): He legalised his usurpation by receiving a farman from Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela. He prevented the English and the French from fortifying their factories at Calcutta and Chandranagore, respectively. • Shuja-ud-din (1724 AD-1739 AD): He was granted governorship of Bihar by Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah Rangeela. • Siraj-ud-Daula (1756 AD-1757 AD) • Alivardi Khan was succeeded by his grandson Siraj-ud-Daula. • In 1756 AD, Siraj-ud-Daula seized the English factory at Kasimbazar and marched to Calcutta and occupied Fort William. Black hole tragedy took place. Robert Clive recovered Calcutta and Treaty of Alinagar was signed on 2nd January, 1757 AD. • Battle of Plassey: On 23rd June, 1757 AD, English East India Company’s forces under

Robert Clive won the battle against Siraj-udDaula, and compelled the Nawab to concede all the demands. • Mir Zafar (Mir Bakhsh), Manik Chand, Officer in-charge of Calcutta, Aminchand, rich Sikh merchant Jagat Seth, banker Khadim Khan, Commander of Nawab’s army, all were in the English side i.e. betrayed Nawab. • Nawab was killed by Mir Zafar’s son Miran.

Mir Jafar (1757 AD-1760 AD)

• The company was granted undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Mir Qasim (1760 AD-1764 AD)

• He shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger. • In 1760 AD, Mir Jafar was replaced by his son-in-law, Mir Qasim. • Mir Qasim ceded Burdwan, Midnapore and Chittagong. He shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Monghyr (Munger). • Battle of Buxar: Mir Qasim formed an alliance with Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-udDaula, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam-II and fought with the British army at Buxar on 22nd October, 1764 AD. • Mir Jafar was again put to throne by the Britishers. • Robert Clive became the first Governor of Bengal in 1765 AD. • After the Battle of Buxar, the Company gave Shah Alam-II a subsidiary of ` 26 lakhs and secured Diwani of Arrah and Allahabad. • The important outcome was the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765. • After the death of Mir Jafar, Nizam-uddaulah was placed on the throne.

Indian History

• Clive concluded two separate treaties of Allahabad with Shah Alam II and Shuja-ud-Daula.

Dual Government of Bengal (1765 AD-1772 AD)

• Dual system of Government in Bengal was started by Clive in 1765 AD. • The Company acquired both Dimani and Nizamat rights from Nazm-ud-Duala, the Nawab of Bengal. • Warren Hastings ended the dual system of government in 1772 AD.

Impact of Victory of Plassey and Buxar

• Victory of Plassey laid the foundation of British rule in India and made them a powerful factor in Bengal politics. • Victory of Buxar established English supremacy over whole of North India as the emperor of Hindustan was defeated.

Treaty of Allahabad (August 1765 AD)

• English got the Diwani right (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and gave Rupees 26 lakhs.

Tipu Sultan: (1782 AD-1799 AD)

• The Treaty of Mangalore (1784 AD) was signed by Tipu Sultan, which ended the Second Anglo-Mysore war. • Third Anglo-Mysore war (1790 AD-1792 AD): By the Treaty of Srirangapatnam (1792 AD), Tipu ceded half of his territory. • Fourth Anglo-Mysore war (1799 AD): Lord Wellesley attacked and Tipu Sultan died. • Tipu established the embassies to France, Turkey, Iran and Pegu to develop foreign trade.

Anglo-Mysore Wars First War (1766 AD-1769 AD)

• Haider Ali defeated the British. The Treaty of Madras was signed.

Second War (1780 AD-1784 AD)

• Warren Hastings attacked French port Mahe that was in Haider Ali’s territory. • In 1781 AD, Haider Ali was defeated at Porto Novo by Eyre Coote.

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• Treaty of Mangalore (1784 AD) was signed by Tipu Sultan on the basis of all mutual restitution of conquests.

Third War (1789 AD-1792 AD)

• Marathas and Nizam aided the British, Cornwallis captured Bangalore. • Treaty of Seringapatnam Tipu ceded half of his territories.

Fourth War (1799 AD)

• Tipu, member of the Jacobin club was defeated by Wellesley. • It placed England on the military supremacy in India.

Punjab

• Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792 AD-1839 AD): Founded Sikh rule in Punjab. He occupied Lahore in 1799 AD and made it his capital. • Successors of Ranjit Singh: Kharak Singh (1839 AD-1840 AD), Naunihal Singh, Sher Singh (1841 AD-1843 AD) and Dalip Singh (1843 AD-1849 AD). • First Anglo-Sikh war (1845 AD-1846 AD): Sikhs were defeated. The Treaty of Lahore (1846 AD) ended the war. • Second Anglo-Sikh war (1848 AD-1849 AD): Dalhousie annexed Punjab. Sir John Lawrence became the first chief commissioner of Punjab.

The Sikhs (Punjab)

• Guru Nanak (1469 AD-1539 AD): Born in Talwandi, he was the first Sikh guru and established Nanak Panth. • Guru Angad (1539 AD-1552 AD): Invented Gurumukhi script for Punjabi language. • Guru Amardas: Mughal Emperor of Akbar visited him. • Guru Ramdas (1575 AD-1581 AD): Founded the city of Amritsar. He dug a tank (sarovar) and constructed Harmandir Sahib in the midst of the tank. • Guru Arjun Dev (1581 AD-1606 AD): He compiled the Adi Granth. He completed the construction of Amritsar and founded the city of Taran and Kartarapur. He was executed by Jahangir. • Guru Hargovind Raj (1606 AD-1645 AD): Transformed Sikhs into a warrior class and

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• • • •

General Knowledge  2020

defeated the Mughal army at Sangrama. Fortified Amritsar and built Akal Takhqt at Golden Temple. Took the title of ‘Padshah’ and founded the city of Kiratpur in Kashmir. Guru Har Rai (1645 AD-1661 AD): He met Dara Shikoh, son of Aurangzeb. Guru Harkishan (1616 AD-1664 AD): Ramanaya established separate seat of Guru of Dehradun. Guru Teg Bahadur (1664 AD-1675 AD): Executed by Aurangzeb in Delhi. Sisganj Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom. Guru Gobind Singh (1675 AD-1708 AD) (born in Patna): He organised a community of warriors called Khalsa (on the Baisakhi Day in 1699 AD). The Sikhs were required to keep 5Ks, viz. Kesh, Kripan, Kachchha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled Dasween Padshah ka Granth. He was stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708 AD. Anglo-Sikh Wars

.

First War (1845 AD-1846 AD) • The Sikhs were defeated. Treaty of Lahore (1846) ended the war. Second War (1848 AD-1849 AD) • Dalhousie annexed Punjab in 1849.

Anglo-Burmese War • Burma was united by King Alaungpaya between 1752 AD and 1760 AD.

First War (1824 AD)

• In 1824 AD, the British Indian authority declared war on Burma and occupied Rangoon, and reached the capital Ava. Peace came in 1826 AD by Treaty of Yandabo.

Second war (1852 AD)

• Annexation of Pegu, the capital province only remained free.

Third War (1885 AD)

• British attacked over Burma and Thibaw surrendered. • In 1935 AD, Burma was separated from India. Movement of Burma reached a new height under the leadership of U Aung

San and Burma got independence on 4th January, 1948.

The Carnatic Wars • These were the Anglo-French conflicts. • These wars were continued for 20 years from 1744 to 1763 A.D.

First War (1744-1748)

• French captured Madras • French defeated Nawab of Hyderabad at St. Thome. • Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle, (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession.

Second War (1749-1754)

• Dupleix aligned with Muzaffar Jung (Hyderabad) and Chanda Sahib (Carnatic). • After initial reverses, Robert Clive emerged victorius. • Godeheau signed the treaty of Pondicherry in 1755 with the English.

Third War (1758-1763)

• French, Count de Lally captured ‘Fort St. David’. • French were defeated at Wandiwash (1760) under General Eyre Coote. • Pondicherry was returned to French by the Treaty of Paris.

Anglo-Maratha Wars • First Anglo Maratha War was fought from 1775-1782 A.D. • The Britishers signed Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao (1775). • The Treaty of Purandhar was made in 1775. • The Treaty of Salbai (1782) gave 20 years of peace. • The Second Maratha war was fought from 1803-1806 A.D. • The Primary cause was the Treaty of Bassein (1802). • The Scindia and the Bhonsle were defeated. • The Third Anglo Maratha War was fought in 1817-1818. • Lord Hasting’s moves against Pindaris transgressed the authority of the Marathas. • The Maratha confederacy was completely destroyed. • Peshwa Baji Rao-II was dethroned and pensioned off at Bithur near Kanpur.

Indian History Anglo-Afghan Wars First War (1839 AD-1842 AD) or Auckland’s Folly • British had to restore the throne to Dost Muhammad. British occupied Kabul in 1842 AD. Second War (1870 AD-1880 AD) • Sher Ali was defeated by Lord Lytton and his sons signed the Treaty of Gandamak (Yakub Khan). Third Anglo-Afghan War • Durand line was reaffirmed between British India and Afghanistan. • Treaty of Rawalpindi was signed.

Economic Impact of British Rule Three Stages of British Colonialism First Phase–The Mercantile Phase (1757 AD-1813 AD) • Revenue of Bengal was used to finance exports to England. • Act of 1813 AD allowed one-way trade for the British. As a result, the Indian markets flooded with cheap and machine-made imports. Indian traders lost foreign as well as home markets. • Heavy import duty on Indian products to England discouraged them in the market. Second Phase–The Industrial Phase (1813 AD-1858 AD) • The British mercantile industrial capitalist class exploited India as Industrial Revolution in Britain completely transformed the British economy. Charter Act of 1813 AD allowed ‘one-way free trade’ for the British citizens, resulting in the Indian markets being flooded with cheap and machine-made imported goods from Britain. Third Phase–The Financial Phase (1860 AD onwards) • Heavy British investment in India and burden of public debt increased. • Industries came into existence (Tata Iron and Steel Company in 1907).

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Drain of Wealth

• Dadabhai Naoroji citied it in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India (1867 AD). R.C. Dutta, in his Economic History of India (1901 AD), blamed the British policies for the Indian economic ills. • ‘Drain of Wealth’ theory refers to an importation of national product of India, which was not available for consumption to its people.

Land Revenue Systems • Permanent Settlement/Istamarari (Sthayi) Bandobast • Introduced in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, districts of Banaras and Northern districts of Madras by Lord Cornwallis in 1793 AD. • John Shore planned this settlement.

Ryotwari System

• Introduced in Bombay and Madras. Munro (Viceroy) and Charles Reed recommended it. • In this, a direct settlement was made between the government and the ryot (cultivator). • It was based on the Scientific Rent Theory of Ricardo.

Mahalwari System

• Modified version of zamindari settlement was introduced in the Ganges valley; NWFP parts of Central India and Punjab. • Revenue settlement was to be made by village or estates with landlords.

Civil Revolts

• Sannyasi Revolt (Bengal, 1780 AD): Led by religious monks. • Kattabomman Revolt (1792 AD-1798 AD): Led by Vira Pandya Kattabomman. • Paik Revolt (Orissa, 1804 AD-1806 AD): Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu. • Velu Thampi (Travancore, 1805 AD): Led by Velu Thampi. • Kittur Revolt (Karnataka, 1824 AD): Led by Chinnama and Ryappa. • Pagal Pandits (Maimansinh, 1825 AD-1833 AD): Led by Karam Shah and Tipu. • Raju (Vizag, 1827 AD): Led by Birabhadra Raju.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Satavandi (Maharashtra, 1839 AD): Led by Phond Savant and Anna Sahib. • Kuka (1840 AD): Led by Bhagat Jawahar Mal or Sian Saheb in Punjab. • Poligar (Karnool, 1846 AD): Led by Narasimha Reddy.

Important Socio-Religious Reformers

• Swami Sahajananda (1781 AD-1830 AD): Originally Gyanashyama founded the Swaminarayan sect in Gujarat. • Raja Rammohan Roy (1772 AD-1833 AD): Born in 1772 AD, founded Atmiya Sabha in Calcutta in 1815 AD, which was named Brahmo Sabha and finally Brahmo Samaj in 1828 AD. His journal was named Sabad Kaumudi. • Debender became the leader of the Brahmo Samaj after Raja Rammohan Roy. He founded Tattvabodhini Sabha in 1839 and published Tattvabodhini Patrika. He compiled selected passages from the Upanishads, which came to be known as Brahma Dharma. • Keshav Chandra Sen (1838 AD-1884 AD): Keshav Chandra Sen was the leader of the Brahmo Samaj during the absence of Debendranath Tagore. He started Bamabodhini Patrika, a journal for women. He launched radical reforms such as giving up of caste names, inter-caste and widow remarriages, and launched movements against child marriages. These radical reforms led to the first schism in the Brahmo Samaj. The original Brahmo Samaj came to be known as Adi Brahmo Samaj and the other the Brahmo Samaj of India which was established by Keshav Chandra Sen in 1866 AD. Sen formed the Indian Reform Association in 1870 AD, which persuaded the British Government to enact the Native Marriage Act of 1972 (popularly known as Civil Marriage Act). • Anand Mohan Bose started Sadharam Brahmo Samaj. • Justice M.G. Ranade founded the Prarthna Samaj.

Indian Renaissance Arya Samaj

• The first Arya Samaj unit was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 AD in Bombay. • His original name was Mula Shankar. • He looked on the Vedas as ‘India’s Rock and Ages’. His mottos were Go back to Vedas and India for the Indians. • Arya Samaj stood for four-fold Varna system determined by merit and not by birth; for equal rights for men and women. Opposed untouchability, caste discrimination, child marriage and supported widow remarriage and intercaste marriages. • He wrote three books–Satyartha Prakash, Veda-Bhashya Bhumika and Veda Bhashya. • In 1886 AD, Lala Hansraj instituted Dayanand Anglo Vedic (DAV) School in Lahore. In 1902 AD, Gurukul Pathshala was established at Haridwar. • The Arya Samaj started the Shuddhi Movement to convert non-Hindus to Hindus. Other prominent Arya Samajists were Lala Hansraj, Pt. Guru Dutt, Lala Lajpat Rai and Swami Shradhananda.

Ramakrishna Mission

• It was established by Swami Vivekananda to carry on relief and social work after death of his Guru Rama Krishna Paramahansa in 1897 AD.

Swami Vivekananda

• His original name was Narendranath Dutt. • He attended the Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893 AD and published two papers, Prabhudhha Bharat in English and Udbodhana in Bengali. • He urged people to inculcate the spirit of liberty, equality and free thinking. • He worked for the emancipation of women. • He emerged as a preacher of Neo-Hinduism. • He advocated the Doctrine of Service–the service of all human beings. • He was considered as the spiritual father of the modern nationalist movement.

Indian History

• Irish woman Margaret Noble (aka Sister Nivedita) popularised Ramakrishna Mission after Vivekananda’s death.

Dharma Sabha

• The orthodox Hindus organised the Dharma Sabha under the leadership of Raja Radhakant Dev in 1830 AD to counter Brahmo Samaj.

Paramahansa Mandali

• Founded by Dadoba Pandurang and Bal Shastri Jambhekar in 1849 AD. The Mandalis believed in one God. • Members took food cooked by low-caste people. He believed in permitting widow remarriage and in education of women.

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• The Theosophical Society India was founded by Annie Besant. She founded Central Hindu College in 1898 AD, which became Banaras Hindu University in 1916 AD.

Deccan Education Society

• Founded by M.G. Ranade, V.G. Chibdonkar and G.G. Agarkar in Pune in 1884 AD. • The society founded the Ferguson College.

Seva Sadan

• Founded by Behramji M. Malabari in Bombay in 1885 AD.

Indian National Social Conference

• Founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao in Bombay in 1887 AD.

Madras Hindu Association

Veda Samaj

• Founded by Viresalingam Pantalu in Madras in 1892 AD.

The Prarthana Sabha

• F o u n d e d b y P a n d i t M a d a n M o h a n Malaviya and Pandit Din Dayal Sharma in Varanasi in 1929 AD.

• It is called Brahmo Samaj of South. It was started by Sridharalu Naidu. • It was founded in 1867 AD by M.G. Ranade. • Prominent leaders were Dr. Atmaram Pandurang and R.G. Bhandarkar and N.G. Chandavarkar.

Young Bengal Movement

• It was founded by Henry Louis and Vivian Derozio. • They believed in truth, freedom and religion. It supported women’s education. • Derozio edited the papers–Calcutta Gazzette and India Gazette. Swami Narayan Sampraday • Founded by Swami Sahajananda in Gujarat. Namdhari/Kuka Movement • It was founded by Bhai Balak Singh and Baba Ram Singh in the North-West frontier province, Ludhiana, in 1841 AD.

Indian Reform Association

• It was founded by Keshab Chandra Sen in Calcutta in 1870 AD.

Theosophical Society

• It was founded by Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Col. H.S. Olcott in New York in 1875 AD.

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala

The Servants of India Society

• Founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale in Bombay in 1905 AD.

Poona Seva Sadan

• Founded by G.K. Devdhar and Ramabai Pande in Pune.

Nishkam Karma Math

• Founded by Dhondo Keshav Karve in Pune. • Founded India’s first Women’s University in Pune in 1916.

The Bharat Stri Mandal

• Founded by Saralabala Devi Chaudharani in Calcutta. It was the first All India Women Organisation.

Seva Samiti (1914 AD)

• Founded in Allahabad by Pandit Hridayanath Kunzru.

The Indian Women’s Association

• Founded by Annie Besant in Madras (1917 AD).

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General Knowledge  2020

Rahanumai Mazdayasan Sabha

• Founded in Bombay by S.S. Bengali, Naoroji Furdonji and J.B. Nacha (1831 AD).

Khudai Khidmatgar Movement

• Started by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan in NWFP (1929 AD).

Lokahitawadi

• Started by Gopal Hari Deshmukh.

Radha Swami Movement

• Started by Tulsi Ram (Shiv Dayal Saheb or Swami Maharaj) in 1861 AD.

Deva Samaj

• Started by Shiv Narain Agnihotri in 1887 AD.

Atmaram Panduran (1823 AD-1898 AD)

• Atmaram Pandurang founded Prarthana Samaj in 1867 AD in Bombay.

The Revolt of 1857 AD • Occurred during the reign of GovernorGeneral Lord Canning.

Causes of the Revolt

• Political: Nana Sahib was refused pension, as he was the adopted son of Peshwa Baji Rao II. Avadh was annexed in 1856. On charges of mal-administration, Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur and Sambhalpur were annexed owing to Doctrine of Lapse. • Economic: Heavy taxation, forcibly evictions, discriminatory tariff policy against Indian products. • Socio-religious: Abolition of sati in 1829 AD; legalisation of widow remarriage in 1856 AD, etc. • Military: Discrimination with Indian soldiers. • Indian soldiers were paid low salaries. • Immediate cause: The introduction of Enfield rifles, whose cartridges were said to have a greased cover made of beef and pork, sparked off the revolt. • The Beginning and Spread of the Revolt: On March 29, 1857 AD, an Indian sepoy of 34 Native Infantry, Mangal Pandey, killed two British officers–Hugeson and Baugh on parade at Barrackpore (near Calcutta). He was arrested and hanged.

• The mutiny actually started at Meerut on May 10, 1857 AD. The soldiers broke open jails, murdered Europeans, burnt their houses and marched to Delhi after sunset. • General Hewitt was the commanding officer at Meerut. • The appearance of the marching soldiers next morning (i.e. 11th May) in Delhi was a signal to the local soldiers, who, in turn, revolted, seized the city and proclaimed the 82–yearold Bahadur Shah Zafar, as Shehanshahe-Hindustan (i.e. Emperor of India). • Within a month of the capture of Delhi, the revolt spread to the different parts of India. South remained quiet, and Punjab and Bengal were only marginally affected.

)) Note:

Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862 AD. Nana Sahib (original name, Dhundhu Pant), Begum Hazrat Mahal and Khan Bahadur Khan escaped to Nepal; Tantiya Tope (original name being Ramchandra Panduranga) was captured and executed. Rani Lakshmi Bai died in the battlefield. Kunwar Singh was wounded and died on April 26, 1858 AD.

Centres of Revolt and Their Leaders

• Delhi: Bahadur Shah and General Bakhti Khan. • Kanpur: Nana Sahib/Dhondu Pant (adopted son of Baji Rao II), Tantya Tope and Azimullah Khan. • Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai. • Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal, her son Birjis Qadr. • Faizabad: Maulvi Ahmadullah. • Bareilley: Khan Bahadur Khan. • Bihar: (Arrah) Kunwar Singh, Zamindar of Jagdishpur. • Delhi was seized by the rebels on May 12, 1857. • Delhi was captured on September 20, 1857 AD by John Nicholson and Bahadur Shah II was deported to Rangoon, where he died in 1862 AD. • Jhansi was captured by Hugh Rose on June 17, 1858 AD. Rani Lakshmi Bai died in the battlefield.

Indian History

• Kanpur was recaptured on December 6, 1857 AD by Colin Campbell. • Lucknow was recaptured on March 21, 1858 AD by Colin Campbell, Havelock and Outram. • Nana Sahib and Hazrat Mahal both escaped to Nepal. • William Taylor and Edgre suppressed the revolt at Arrah. English authority was re-established in India during JulyDecember, 1858 AD. Rani Laxmi Bai Rani Laxmi Bai, nicknamed Manu was married to Raja Gangadhar Rao in 1842. The couple adopted a child in 1853 but lord. Dalhousie wished to annex Jhansi under the Doctrine of Lapse. Rani did not surrender and died fighting at Kalpi near Jhansi during the revolt of 1857.

Causes of Failure

• • • •

1. Disunity of Indians and poor organisation. 2. Lack of complete nationalism. Scindias, Holkars, Nizam and others actively helped the British. 3. Lack of coordination between sepoys, peasants, zamindars and other classes. 4. M a n y h a d d i f f e r e n t m o t i v e s f o r participating in the revolt. All the classes of the society were not affected and also did not participate in the revolt. The military equipment of rebels were inferior. The most significant feature of the revolt was the exhibition of the Hindu-Muslim unity. Concentration on the Northern part of India.

Impact of the Revolt of 1857 AD

1. In August 1857 AD, the British Parliament passed an Act which put an end to the rule of the Company. The control of the British Government in India was transferred to the British Crown. 2. A minister of the British Government called the Secretary of state for India was made responsible for the governance of India. 3. The British Governor-General of India was now also given the title of Viceroy. 4. Doctrine of Lapse was withdrawn. 5. After the revolt, the British pursued the policy of divide and rule.

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6. Far-reaching changes were made in the administration and increase in the number of white soldiers in the army took place. 7. It soon became a symbol of challenge to the mighty British empire in India and remained a shining star for the rise and growth of the Indian national movement. 8. Total expense of the suppression was borne by India.

Indian National Movement Indian National Congress (I.N.C.)

• The Indian National Union was formed in 1884 AD by A.O. Hume. He called for a conference in Pune in December 1885 AD. • The conference venue was shifted to Bombay. • The leaders decided to rename the Indian National Union as Indian National Congress. • The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College in Bombay under the presidentship of W.C. Bannerji. • It was attended by 72 delegates from all over India. • Lord Dufferin was the Viceroy of India during the foundation of INC. • The first two decades of INC are described in history as those of moderate demands and a sense of confidence in British justice and generosity. Indian Council Act in 1892 AD allowed some members to be indirectly elected by Indians. Moderate leaders: Dadabhai Naoroji, A.O. Hume, Badruddin Tyabji, M.G. Ranade, W.C. Bannerji, Ferozeshah Mehta, Surendra Nath Bannerji, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Rash Behari Bose.

Select Opinions about INC

• “INC represents only microscopic minorities.” –Lord Dufferin (1884 AD-1888 AD) (Contemporary Viceroy). • “The Congress is tottering to its fall, and one of my great ambitions while in India, is to assist it to a peaceful demise”.–Lord Curzon (1899 AD-1905 AD) (Viceroy).

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General Knowledge  2020

• “INC is a begging institute.”–Aurobindo Ghosh (Extremist Leader). • “INC should distinguish between begging and claiming the rights”. –Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Extremist Leader). Facts Ist President of INC

W. C. Bannerji

Ist Woman President

Annie Besant

Ist Muslim President

Badruddin Tyabji

Ist English President

George Yuke

Gandhi became President

1924, Belgaum

Extremist Phase (1905 AD-1917 AD) Reasons for the Emergence of Extremists 1. Realisation that the true nature of British rule was exploitative. 2. International influences and events which demolished the myth of White/ European supremacy. 3. Dissatisfaction with the achievements of Moderates. 4. Reactionary policies of Curzon. Existence of a military school of thought and emergence of a trained leadership.

Prominent Extremist Leaders

1. Bal Gangadhar Tilak: He launched two newspapers–the Kesari (in Marathi) and the Maratha (in English). He organised Ganpati Festival (1893 AD) and Shivaji Festival (1895 AD). He was deported to Mandalay Jail (Burma) for writing seditious articles. He started the Home Rule League in 1916 AD. He wrote Gita Rahasya. Tilak asserted: ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it’. ƒƒ He was awarded with the title of Lokmanya. ƒƒ He was called ‘Bal’, Lala Lajpat Rai was called ‘Lal’ and Bipin Chandra Pal was called ‘Pal’. ƒƒ He was a part of the trio of ‘Lal-BalPal’ and the extremist group. ƒƒ He wrote the books The Arctic Home of Vedas and Gita Rahasya. 2. Lala Lajpat Rai: He founded the National School at Lahore. He presided over the

AITUC in 1920 AD. He boycotted the Simon Commission and demonstrated against it at Lahore, during which he was brutally assaulted by the police and he subsequently succumbed to his injuries. ƒƒ He was called the Lion of Punjab. ƒƒ He was inspired by Mahatma Hansraj. ƒƒ He was the President of the special session of the Congress at Calcutta, 1920 AD. ƒƒ He opposed the withdrawal of NCM in 1922 AD. He founded Swaraj Party with Motilal Nehru and C.R. Das. ƒƒ He was the editor of Bande Matram, The Punjab and The People. 3. Sri Aurobindo Ghosh: He started a Bengali Daily Jugantar. He wrote seditious articles in Bande Matram. He was put to trial for Maniktalla (Calcutta) Bomb Conspiracy Case. He finally retired to the life of Yoga at Pondicherry. 4. Other Extremist Leaders: Chakravarthy Vijayaraghavachariar, Ashwani Kumar Chidambaram Pillai, etc.

Methods of Extremists

1. Passive, i.e. non-cooperating with the British Government, boycotting government service, courts, schools and colleges. 2. Promotion of Swadeshi and boycott of foreign goods.

The Partition of Bengal (1905) and Boycott and Swadeshi Movement (1905 AD-1908 AD) • The Partition of Bengal came into effect on 16th October, 1905 AD, reducing the old province of Bengal in size by creating a new province of East Bengal. • The government explained that it was done to stimulate growth in the underdeveloped Eastern region of Bengal. The main reason for partition of Bengal was to destroy the political influence of the uneducated middle class among whom the Bengali intelligentsia was the most prominent. The INC unanimously condemned the partition of Bengal.

Indian History

• The Boycott and Swadeshi Movement had its genesis in the antipartition movement. • The INC took up the Swadeshi call in the Benares Session, 1905 AD presided by G.K. Gokhale and supported the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement of Bengal Militant nationalism spearheaded by Trio of Lal-BalPal (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin Chandra Pal), and Aurobindo Ghosh was, however, in favour of extending the movement to the rest of India. • On 7th August, 1905 AD, a resolution to boycott British goods was adopted at a meeting of the INC held in Calcutta. • Tilak took the movement to different parts of India, especially in Pune and Bombay. Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai spread the Swadeshi message in Punjab and other parts of Northern India. Syed Haider Raza set up to agenda in Delhi. Chidambaram Pillai took the movement to Madras Presidency.

Formation of the Muslim League

• Set up in 1906 AD, under the leadership of Aga Khan, Nawab Salimullah of Dhaka and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. • Vakar-ul-Mulk was the first president of Muslim League. • It supported the partition of Bengal, opposed the Swadeshi Movement, and demanded special safeguards for its community and separate electorate for the Muslims. • Calcutta Session of INC (1906 AD)–Swaraj: In December 1906 in Calcutta, the INC, under the leadership of Dadabhai Naoroji, adopted Swaraj as the goal in Indian people. The differences between the moderates and the extremists, especially regarding the pace of the movement and the techniques of the struggle to be adopted led to split of Surat in 1907 AD at the Surat Session of the Congress. • Surat Split (1907 AD): The INC split into two groups, the extremists and the moderates at the Surat session in 1907 AD. The extremists were led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai and Bipin Chandra Pal and the moderates were led by Gopal Krishna Gokhale. This was the 23rd session of INC and Lord Minto was the Viceroy of India.

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The government observing the opportunity launched a massive attack on the extremists but suppressing the newspaper and arresting their main leader Tilak and sending him to Mandalay jail (Burma) for six years. Aurobindo Ghosh gave up politics and left for Pondicherry. Bipin Chandra Pal also left politics temporarily. Lala Lajpat Rai left for Britain, After 1908 AD, the national movement as a whole declined.

Indian Council Act of 1909 AD or Morley-Minto Reforms

• Separate electorate introduced for Muslims. • Lord Minto came to be known as the father of Communal Electorate. • Non-officials to be elected indirectly. Thus, election introduced for the first time. • For the first time, one Indian was to be on Viceroy’s executive council. Satyendra Prasad Sinha was the first Indian to join the council as the Law member. • Annulment of Partition in 1911 AD, the government announced annulment of the partition of Bengal.

Ghadar Party (1913 AD)

• Formed by Lala Har Dayal, Tarak Nath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna. • The war period witnessed the growth of revolutionary movement not only in India but also outside India by the Indians. • Indian revolutionary in the United States of America and Canada had established the Ghadar (Rebellion) Party in 1913 AD. • The party was built around the weekly paper The Ghadar, which carried the caption Angrezi Raj ka Dushman. • Headquarters were at San Francisco. • Some of the prominent Ghadar leaders were Baba Gurumukh Singh, Kartar Singh Saraba, Sohan Singh Bhakna and Rahmat Ali Shah. • To carry out other revolutionary activities, ‘Swadesh Sevak Home’ at Vancouver and United India House at Seattle was set up.

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General Knowledge  2020

Revolutionary Organisations in India Organisation

Founder

Year

Place

Mitra Mela

Savarkar Brothers

1899

Poona

Anushilan Samiti I

Gayendranath Bose

1902

Midnapur

Abhinav Bharat

V.D. Savarkar

1906

Poona

Swadesh Bandhav Samiti

Ashwini Kumar Dutt

1905

Barisal

Anushilan Smiti II

Barindra Ghosh and Bhupendra Dutt

1907

Dhaka

Bharat Mata Society

Ajit Singh and Amba Prasad

1907

Punjab

Hindustan Republican Association

Jogesh Chandra Chatterji and Sachindranath Sanyal

1924

Kanpur

Naujawan Sabha

Bhagat Singh

1926

Lahore

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association

1928

1928

Delhi

Revolutionary Organisation Formed outside India Organisation

Founder

Year

Place

India House

Shaymji Krishna Verma

1905

London

Abhinav Bharat

V.D. Savarkar

1906

London

Indian Independence League

Tarak Nath Das

1907

U.S.A.

Ghadar Party

Lala Hardayal, Tarak Nath Das and Sohan Singh Bhakna

1913

San Francisco

Indian Independence League

Lala Hardayal and Birendra

1914

Berlin

Government Indian Independence League

Ras Bihari Bose

1942

Tokyo

Indian National Army

Ras Bihari Bose

1942

Tokyo

Komagata Maru Ship Incident (1914 AD)

• Komagata Maru was a Japanese steamship that carried the Sikh and Muslim immigrants from Punjab to Vancouver, Canada. It reached the fort of Vancouver on May 22, 1914. But the ship was forced to return to India by the Canadian authorities. The ship was docked at Budge in Calcutta. The Britishers considered the passengers as dangerous political agitators and tried to arrest Baba Gurdit Singh from among them. Police opened fire on them and 19 passengers died in the incident. • Rash Behari Bose and Sachin Sanyal led the movement.

Home Rule Movement (1916 AD)

• The Home Rule League was pioneered on the lines of a similar movement in Ireland. The Muslim League also supported the movement.

Tilak’s Home Rule Movement

• It started in April 1916 AD at Poona. Tilak’s league was to work in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Central Province and Berar, excluding Bombay. • Josef Baptista became the President and N.C. Kelkar secretary. • He gave the slogan ‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it’. • Tilak’s newspapers Maratha and Kesari were the organs for home rule.

Annie Basant’s Home Rule Movement

• Started with Subramaniya Iyer in Adyar in September, worked in the rest of India. • Annie Besant’s newspapers New India, Commonwealth and Young India became important for this movement. She coined the term ‘commonwealth’.

Indian History

• The Congress Session at Allahabad in December 1921 decided to launch a Civil Disobedience Movement. But, before it could be launched, the angry peasants (mob) attacked a police station at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh on 5th February, 1922. This changed the whole situation and Mahatma Gandhi was compelled to withdraw the Non-Cooperation Movement.

Lucknow Pact (Congress-League Pact) (1916 AD)

The Anti-British feelings were generated among the Muslims following a war between Britain and Turkey, which opened the way for the CongressMuslim League unity. Both the Congress and the Muslim League sessions were held at Lucknow in 1916 AD and thus concluded the famous Lucknow Pact. The Congress accepted the separate electorate and both the organisations jointly demanded a dominion status for the country. Montagu Declaration/August Declaration of 1917 AD: The control oven the Indian government would be transferred gradually to the Indian people.

The Gandhian Era (1917 AD-1947 AD) Mahatma Gandhi (1869 AD-1948 AD): Chronological Overview In South Africa (1893 AD-1914 AD) • 1893 AD: Departure of Mahatma Gandhi to South Africa. • 1906 AD: First Civil Disobedience Movement (Satyagraha) against Asiatic Ordinance in Transversal. • 1907 AD: Satyagraha against compulsory registration and passes for Asians (The Black Act) in Transversal. • 1 9 0 8 A D : Trial and imprisonment– Johannesburg Jail (First Jail Term). • 1914 AD: Quits South Africa forever and returns to India. Was awarded Kaisar-i-Hind title for raising an Indian Ambulance Core during Boer wars.

In India: (1915 AD-1948 AD)

• 1915 AD: Arrived in Bombay (India) on 9th January 1915 AD; Foundation of

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Satyagraha. Ashram at Kocharab near Ahmedabad (20th May). In 1917 AD, Ashram was shifted at the banks of Sabarmati. • 1916 AD: He attended the Lucknow Session of INC held from 26th to 30th December, 1916 AD. • 1917 AD: Gandhi entered active politics with Champaran campaign redress grievances of the cultivators oppressed by Indigo plantation of Bihar (April 1917). Champaran Satyagraha was his first Civil Disobedience Movement in India. • 1918 AD: In February 1918, Mahatma Gandhi launched the struggle in Ahmedabad, which involved industrial workers. Hunger strike as a weapon was used for the first time by Gandhi during Ahmedabad struggle. In March 1918, Mahatma Gandhi worked for the peasants of Kheda in Gujarat, who were facing difficulties in paying the rent owing to failure of crops. Kheda Satyagraha was his first Non-cooperation Movement. Rowlatt Act (1919) • In 1919 a Sedition Committee headed by justice Rowlatt led to the Rowlatt Act. This act authorised the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction by the Court of Law for 2 years. The law also enabled the government to suspend the right of Habeas Corpus which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.

• 1919 AD: Mahatma Gandhi gave a call for satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act on April 6, 1919 AD and took the command of the nationalist movement for the first time (first all-India Political Movement). • Mahatma Gandhi returned the Kaisar-i-Hind title as a protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre–13th April, 1919 AD, The All India Khilafat Conference elected Mahatma Gandhi as its president (November 1919, Delhi). • 1920 AD-1922 AD: Mahatma Gandhi led the Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movements. Mahatma Gandhi calls off the Movement after the violent incident at Chauri-Chaura on February 5, 1922. Non-

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• • • • •

General Knowledge  2020

Cooperation Movement was the first massbased politics under Mahatma Gandhi. 1924 AD: Belgaum (Karnataka) session of INC–for the first and the last time, Mahatma Gandhi was elected the president of the Congress. 1930 AD-1934 AD: Mahatma Gandhi launched the Civil Disobedience Movement with his Dandi March-Salt Satyagraha. 1941 AD: Mahatma Gandhi launched the Individual Satyagraha Movement. 1942 AD: Mahatma Gandhi raised the slogan ‘Quit India Movement’. 1943 AD: Mahatma Gandhi kept in detention at the Aga Khan Palace near Pune. 1947 AD: Mahatma Gandhi was deeply distressed by the Mountbatten Plan/ Partition Plan (3rd June, 1947 AD). While staying in Calcutta to restore communal violence, he observed complete silence on the dawn of India’s Independence. 1948 AD: Mahatma Gandhi was shot dead by Nathu Ram Godse while on his way to the evening prayer meeting at Birla House, New Delhi (30th January, 1948 AD).

)) Note: Mahatma Gandhi had suggested the

winding up of Indian National Congress after India attained independence and converting it into Lok Sevak Samaj.

Mahatma Gandhi • Date and Place of Birth: 2nd October, 1869 at Porbandar, Gujarat. • Father: Karamchand Gandhi; Mother: Putli Bai; Political Guru: Gopal Krishna Gokhale. • Literary Influences: John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, Leo Tolstoy’s The Bible and The Gita. • Literary Works: Hind Swaraj (1909 AD), My Experiments with Truth (Autobiography, 1927 AD) reveals the event as of Gandhi’s life upto 1922 AD.

Main Events During the Gandhian Era Rowlatt Act (1919 AD) The Rowlatt Act, 1919 AD gave unveiled powers to the government–arrest and imprison

suspects, without trial. Mahatma Gandhi decided to fight against this act and he gave a call of Satyagraha on 6th April, 1919 AD. He was arrested on 8th April, 1919 AD. Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13th April, 1919 AD) The arrest of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlu and Dr. Satyapal on 10th April, 1919 AD, under the Rowlatt Act in connection with Satyagraha caused serious unrest in Punjab. A public meeting was held on 13th April, 1919 AD in a park called Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. As soon as the meeting started, General Reginald Dyer ordered indiscriminate heavy firing. The crowd of people had no way out to escape. As a result, hundreds of men, women and children were killed and more than 1,200 people wounded. Due to this massacre, R.N. Tagore returned ‘Knighthood’ and Shankaran Nair resigned from the Executive Council of Viceroy.

)) Note:

Sardar Udham Singh, an Indian patriot from Punjab, shot down General Reginald Dyer in London on March 13, 1940.

Khilafat Movement (1920 AD-1922 AD): The Ali Brothers–Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali–launched an anti-British movement in 1920 AD–the movement for the restoration of the Khilafat Movement. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad also led the movement. It was supported by Mahatma Gandhi and INC. On October 17, 1919, ‘Khilafat Day’ was celebrated. Non-cooperation Movement (1920 AD-1922 AD): At the Calcutta session in September 1920 AD, the Congress resolved in favour of the Non-cooperation Movement and defined Swaraj as its ultimate aim (according to Gandhiji). The movement envisaged: (i) Surrender of titles and honorary offices and resignation nominated offices; (ii) Refusal to attend government darbars and official functions and boycott of British courts by the lawyers; (iii) Refusal of general public to offer themselves for military and other government jobs and boycott of foreign goods, etc. Apart from educational boycott,

Indian History

there was boycott of law courts, which saw major lawyers like Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari, Saifuddin Kitchlu, Vallabhbhai Patel, Aruna Asaf Ali, etc. giving up their lucrative practices in their fields. The non-cooperation movement also saw picketing of shops selling foreign cloth and boycott of foreign cloth by the followers of Gandhiji. City of Wales was greeted with empty streets and downed shutters wherever he went. There was an attack on a local police station by angry peasants at Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district on 5th February, 1922 burning 22 policemen. Mahatma Gandhi, shocked by Chauri Chaura incident, withdrew the Non-Cooperation Movement on 12th February, 1922 AD. Gandhiji had launched this movement of August 1, 1920.

Spread of Non-Cooperation Movement

• The United Province became a strong base for the Non-Cooperation Movement. • Agrarian riots under the leadership of Baba Ramchandra and Eka Movement under Madari Pasi. • In Punjab, Akali Movement was constituted for reform and control of Gurudwaras. • Alluri Sitarama Raju organised the tribals in Andhra and combined their demands with those of non-cooperation.

The Swarajists

• Differences arose among the leaders after the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement. One school of thought headed by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru advocated that the nationalists should end the boycott of the legislative council, enter them, obstruct their working according to official plans, expose their weaknesses, transform them into arenas of political struggle and, thus, use them to arouse public enthusiasm. They were ‘pro-changers’. The pro-changers formed the Swaraj Party on January 1, 1923. • Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Ansari, Babu Rajendra Prasad and others opposed council entry. They were known as no changers. • In December 1922 AD, C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed Congress Khilafat Swarajya

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Party with C.R. Das as the President and Motilal Nehru as the Secretary. • Madan Mohan Malaviya and Lala Lajpat Rai founded the Independent Congress Party later in 1933 AD. It was recognised as the Congress Nationalist Party.

Simon Commission (1927 AD)

• In 1927 AD, the British Government appointed the Indian Statutory Commission known popularly by its chairman Simon. • Lord Irwin was the Viceroy of India at that time. • The committee had to review the working of the dyarchy system introduced by Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 AD and to report to what extent a representative government can be introduced in India. • All the members of the commission were White. • The National Congress decided to boycott the commission in its Madras Session in 1927 AD, presided over by Dr. Ansari. • The Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha decided to support the Congress. • On 3rd February 1928 AD, the commission was greeted with Hartals and black flag demonstration under the slogan ‘Simon Go Back’. • At Lahore, Lala Lajpat Rai was severely beaten in a lathicharge and he succumbed to his injuries on October 30, 1929.

Nehru Report (1928 AD)

• Nehru report was tabled in 1928 AD by Motilal Nehru. • It remains memorable as the first major Indian effort to draft a constitutional framework for India. • The recommendations evoked a debate concerning the goal of India-Dominion status of complete independence. • Other members of the committee were Tej Bahadur Sapru, Ali Imam, M.S. Aney, Mangal Singh, Sohaib Qureshi, G.R. Pradhan and Subhash Chandra Bose.

Jinnah’s 14 points (9th March, 1929 AD)

• Jinnah, the leader of the Muslim League did not accept the Nehru Report and drew up

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a list of fourteen demands, which became famous as 14 points of Jinnah.

Lahore Session (1929 AD)

• This session was presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru. • This session passed a resolution of Poorna Swaraj (complete independence) as its ultimate goal. • All members of legislature were asked to resign their seats. • On 31st December, 1929, the newly adopted tricolour was hoisted and 26th January, 1930 was fixed as the first Independence Day. • The Congress Session also announced a Civil Disobedience Movement under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. • Congress decided to boycott the first Round Table Conference.

Dandi March/Salt Satyagraha (1930 AD)

• Along with 78 followers, Mahatma Gandhi started his famous march from Sabarmati Ashram on 12th March, 1930 AD for the small village Dandi to break the Salt Law. On reaching the seashore on 6th April, he broke the law by picking up salt from the seashore. By picking up a handful of salt, Mahatma Gandhi inaugurated the Civil Disobedience Movement. It took the shape of a nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement in which ladies also participated.

Regional Spread on Civil Disobedience Movement

• Under the leadership of Abdul Gaffar Khan, popularly known as The Frontier Gandhi, the Pathans organised the society of Khudai Khidmatgars (servants of God) known popularly as Red Shirts. • From North-East India, Manipur took a brave part in it and Nagaland produced a brave heroine named Rani Gaidinliu. • Chittagong: Armory raised by Surya Sen in 1930 AD. • Darshana: It was led by Sarojini Naidu, Imam Saheb and Maneka Gandhi.

• In Madras, Rajagopalachari led a march from Trichinopoly to Vedaranyam along the Coromandel Coast. • In Kerala, K. Kelappan marched from Calicut to Payyanur. • Congress was declared illegal.

First Round Table Conference (12th November, 1930 AD)

• Congress boycotted the conference. • Muslim League was represented by Mohammad Ali, Agha Khan, Fazlul Haq, M.A. Jinnah and Hindu Mahasabha by Moonje and Jayakar. • Tej Bahadur Sapru, Chintamani and Srinivas Shastri (Liberals) appeared. • Princes of Hyderabad, Mysore attended it. • No result came out of the conference. • Dalits were represented by B.R. Ambedkar. • Moderate statesmen Jaikar, Sapru and Srinivas Shastri initiated efforts to break the ice between Mahatma Gandhi and the government. The negotiation between Irwin and Mahatma Gandhi on 5th March, 1931 AD came to be known as Gandhi-Irwin Pact or Delhi Pact. Gandhi-Irwin Pact/Delhi Pact (5th March, 1931 AD): Moderate statesmen Sapru and Jayakar initiated efforts to bring about rapprochement between Mahatma Gandhi and the government. Six meetings with Viceroy Lord Irwin finally led to the signing of a pact between the two to join the Second Round Table Conference. Regarding GandhiIrwin Pact, Jawahar Lal Nehru remarked, ‘This is the way the world ends, not with a bang but a whimper’.

Karachi Session (1931 AD)

• It endorsed the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. This Session is also memorable for its resolution of Fundamental Right and National Economic Programme with the efforts of Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose.

Second Round Table Conference

• Gandhiji went to England in September 1931 AD to attend the Second Round Table Conference presided by Ramsay Macdonald,

Indian History

Prime Minister of Britain. The British Government refused to concede the basic nationalist demand for freedom on the basis of the immediate grant of dominion status with complete control over defence, external affairs and finance. • The Congress officially suspended the movement in 1933 AD and withdrew it in 1934 AD. Mahatma Gandhi resigned from active politics.

The Communal Award/McDonald Award (16th August, 1932 AD)

Announced by British Prime Minister Ramsay McDonald on communal representation on 16th August, 1932 AD. Besides containing millions for representation of Muslims, Sikhs and Europeans, it envisaged communal representation of oppressed classes also. Mahatma Gandhi underwent a fast in protest against this Award.

Poona Pact (Communal Award)

• McDonald announced the proposal on minority representation, known as the Communal Award in 1932 AD. Under this, the depressed classes (Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo Indians, Women and Backward Classes) were to be considered as minority and it would make them entitled to the right of separate electorate. • Gandhiji restored to fast unto death in Yerwada Jail against this separate electorate for depressed class, which Ambedkar was insisting upon. This resulted into the PoonaPact between Gandhi and Ambedkar on 25th September, 1932 AD. • Gandhiji coined the word Harijan for the depressed classes and their upliftment became his prime concern. All India AntiUntouchability League was started in September 1932 AD and a weekly Harijan in January 1933 AD. • He started the Individual Civil Disobedience on 1st August, 1933 AD.

Third Round Table Conference

• Held in London in November, 1932 AD. • Congress did not participate. • The discussion led to the Government of India Act, 1935 AD.

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The Government of India Act, 1935

The Simon Commission report submitted in 1930 AD formed the basis for the Government of India Act, 1935. The Act: (i) introduced provincial autonomy; (ii) abolished dyarchy in the provinces; (iii) made ministers responsible to the legislative and federation at the centre. The Act of 1935 was unanimously rejected by the Congress. Regarding the Government of India Act, 1935, Jawahar Lal Nehru remarks: It was a new charter of slavery. Although the Congress opposed the Act, yet it contested the elections when the constitution was introduced on 1st April, 1937 AD, and formed ministries first in six provinces and then in another.

Congress Ministries Resign (22nd December, 1939 AD)

The Second World War broke out in Europe on 3rd September, 1939 AD that brought Britain also within its fold. Without consulting the Indian leaders, the Viceroy declared India also as a belligerent country. Congress demanded that India should be declared an independent nation. Then only would the country help Britain in the war. The Viceroy in his reply dated 17th October, 1939 AD rejected the Congress demand as impracticable. The Congress condemned the Viceroy’s reply and the Congress ministries everywhere resigned on 22nd December, 1939 AD, Jinnah designating the day of Congress ministries as ‘the day of deliverance’.

Pakistan Resolution/Lahore Resolution (24th March, 1940 AD)

It was in 1930 that Iqbal suggested the union of the Frontier Province–Baluchistan, Sindh and Kashmir–as a Muslim state within the federation. Chaudhry Rehmat Ali invented the term ‘Pakstan’ (later ‘Pakistan’) in 1935 AD. The Lahore Session of the Muslim League was held on 24th March, 1940 AD. Pakistan Resolution was passed and the Federal scheme was rejected as envisaged in the Government of India Act, 1935 AD.

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August Offer/Linlithgow Offer (8th August, 1940 AD)

On this day, Viceroy Linlithgow came out with certain proposals known as August Offer declaring that the goal of the British Government was to establish Dominion Status in India. It accepted that the framing of a new constitution would be given to the views of minorities in the constitution. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, President of the Congress, rejected the August Offer. The Muslim League welcomed the offer. In brief, the August Offer failed in gaining Indian’s co-operation for war and, in fact, further widened the gulf between the Congress and the Britishers as well as between the Congress and the Muslim League.

Individual Civil Disobedience/ Individual Satyagraha (October 1940 AD-December 1941 AD)

The Congress Working Committee decided to individually fight disobedience on 17th October, 1940 AD. Vinoba Bhave was the first Satyagrahi, followed soon by many more, including Nehru and Patel. But the movement created little enthusiasm and Mahatma Gandhi suspended it.

Cripps Mission (March, 1942 AD)

• The British Government’s refusal of accepting immediately the Congress demand was the cause of failure of the mission.

Constitutional Proposal of the Mission

(a) Dominion status to be granted after the war. (b) Constitution-making body to be elected from the provincial assemblies and nominated by the rulers in case of princely states. (c) Individual princes could sign a separate agreement with the British. (d) British would, however, control the defence for war period. (e) The British Government undertook to accept and implement the Constitution in two conditions:

• Any province (s) unwilling to accept the Constitution could form a separate union with a separate Constitution. • The new Constitution-making body and the British Government would negotiate a treaty to sort out matters arising out of transfer of power to Indian hands. • Gandhiji termed this proposal as a postdated cheque in a crashing bank. • Cripps proposal failed.

Quit India Movement (1942 AD)

• The All India Congress Committee met at Bombay on 8th August, 1942 AD. It passed the famous Quit India resolution and proposed to the starting of a non-violent mass struggle under Gandhiji’s leadership. • It is also called Vardha Proposal and Leaderless Revolt. • His message was ‘Do or Die’. • Repressive policy of the government and indiscriminate arrest of the leaders provoked people to violence. • Nehru was lodged in Almora Jail, Maulana Azad in Bankura and Mahatma Gandhi was kept in Agha Khan’s Palace in Poona. • Parallel governments were established. • In Satara, Pratisarkar was set up under Nana Patil and in Baliya under Chittu Pande. Others were in Talcher and Bihar. In Bengal, Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar functioned in Midnapore. • Underground revolutionary activity was also started by Jaiprakash Narain, and R a m a n a n d a n M i s h r a escaped from Hazaribagh Jail and organised an under­ ground movement. • In Bombay, the socialist leaders continued their underground activities under leaders like Aruna Asaf Ali. Congress Radio was established with Usha Mehta as its announcer and Raja Ram Manohar Lohia in Bihar. • School and college students and women actively participated, workers went on strike. • There were no communal clashes during the movement. • The merchant community and capitalists did not participate. Muslim League kept

Indian History

aloof and the Hindu Mahasabha condemned the movement. Communist Party did not support the movement. • Rajagopalachari also did not participate.

Demand for Pakistan

• In 1930 AD, Mohammad Iqbal, for the first time, suggested that the frontier province, Sind, Baluchistan and Kashmir be made the Muslim state within the federation. • Chaudhry Rehmat Ali coined the term ‘Pakstan’ (later ‘Pakistan’) in 1933. • Pakistan Resolution: The Muslim League first passed the proposal of separate Pakistan in its Lahore Session in 1940 AD (called Jinnah’s two-nation theory). It was drafted by Sikandar Hayat Khan, moved by Fazlul Haq and seconded by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman. • In December 1943, the Karachi Session of the Muslim League adopted the slogan– ‘Divide and Quit’. • Gandhiji’s Fast (10th February-7th March, 1943 AD): Mahatma Gandhi took to 21–day fasting in jail. This was his answer to the government, which had been constantly exhorting him to condemn the violence of the people in the Quit India Movement. Mahatma Gandhi not only refused to condemn people resorting to violence but also unequivocally held the government responsible for it.

C.R. Formula (1944 AD)

He proposed to appoint a commission to demarcate the districts in North-West and East, where the Muslims were in majority. In such areas, a plebiscite was proposed to be held on to decide the issue of separation. They would be given freedom if they favoured a sovereign state. In case of acceptance of partition, agreement was to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce, communications, etc. Muslim League was to endorse Congress’ demand for independence and cooperate in the formation of provisional government. Jinnah objected. The Hindu leaders led by V.D. Savarkar condemned the plan.

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Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference (14th June-14th July, 1945 AD): After consultation with the British Government on the Indian problem, Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India, issued a statement known as Wavell Plan. The plan which chiefly concerned Viceroy’s Executive Council, proposed certain changes in the structure of the council. One of the main proposals was that the Executive Council would be constituted giving a balanced representation to the main communities in it including equal representation to the Muslims and Hindus. A conference of 22 prominent Indian leaders, called in Shimla to consider the Wavell Plan, reached no decision. What scutted the conference was Mr. Jinnah’s unflinching stand that the Muslim members approved only by the Muslim League should be included in the Executive Council.

The Indian National Army and Subhash Chandra Bose

• The idea of Indian National Army (INA) was first conceived in Malaya by Mohan Singh, an Indian officer of the British Indian Army. • In March 1942, a conference of India was held in Tokyo and Indian Independence League was formed. At Bangkok Conference, Rash Behari Bose was elected as President of the League. • Subhash Chandra Bose escaped to Berlin in 1941 AD and set up Indian League there. • In 1943 AD, he arrived at Singapore. Earlier, he had left the Congress after having differences with Mahatma Gandhi and formed Forward Bloc in 1939 AD. • In Singapore, he was assisted by Rash Behari Bose. In October 1943, he set up a provisional Indian Government with headquarters at Rangoon and Singapore. • INA annexed Andaman and Nicobar with the Japanese help and named them Shaheed and Swaraj. Subhash Chandra Bose gave the call Dilli Chalo.

INA Trials

• The INA commanders P.K. Sehgal, Shah Nawaz and Gurbaksh Dhillon were put on trial at the Red Fort.

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• Defence of INA prisoners in the court was organised by Bhulabhai Desai, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Kailash Nath Katju, Nehru and Asaf Ali. • Wavell used veto power and set them free. • The Muslim League also joined the countrywide protest. 12th November, 1945 was celebrated as the INA Day.

Royal Indian Navy (RIN)/Ratings Mutiny (18th February, 1946 AD)

On this day, Bombay Ratings of HMS Talwar struck work. On 19th February, HMS Hindustan in Karachi also mutinied. Vallabh Bhai Patel and Jinnah jointly persuaded the Ratings to surrender on 23rd February, 1946 AD.

Cabinet Mission (March-June, 1946 AD)

The British Prime Minister Lord Attlee made a declaration on 15th March, 1946 AD that the British Cabinet Mission would visit India. The Cabinet Mission, which included Lord Pathick Lawrence Stafford Cripps and AV. Alexander visited India and met the representatives of different political parties. The Mission envisaged the establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame the constitution as well as an interim government. The Muslim League accepted the plan. Direct Action Campaign (16th August, 1946 AD): The Muslim League launched a direct action campaign on 16th August, 1946 AD, which resulted in widespread communal riots in the country.

Interim Government

• Interim Government was headed by Jawahar Lal Nehru. • The Constituent Assembly begins its session on 9th December, 1946 AD and Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected its President, but the League did not attend. Liaqat Ali Khan of the Muslim League was made the Finance Minister.

Attlee’s Statement (20th February, 1947 AD)

• A deadline of 30th June, 1948 AD was fixed for transfer of power.

• Mountbatten would replace Wavell as the Viceroy. • Partition of the country was implicit in the provision that if the Constituent Assembly was not fully representative, then the power would be transferred to more than one central government.

Mountbatten Plan (3rd June, 1947 AD)

• 3rd June Plan: In case of partition, two dominions and two Constituent Assemblies would be created. The plan declared that power would be handed over by 15th August, 1947 AD. • The Legislative Assemblies of Punjab and Bengal decided in favour of partition of these two provinces. Thus, East Bengal and West Punjab joined Pakistan. West Bengal and East Punjab remained with India. • Referendum in Sylhet resulted in the incorporation of that district in East Bengal. • The referendum in NWFP decided in favour of Pakistan. • Princely states were given the option to join either of the two dominions or remain independent. • Mountbatten’s formula was to divide India but retain maximum unity.

India Independence Act, 1947 AD

• On 18th July, 1947 AD, the British Parlia­ ment ratified the Mountbatten Plan as the Independence of India Act, 1947. • The Act provided creation of two independent dominions of India and Pakistan. • O n 1 5 t h A u g u s t , 1 9 4 7 , I n d i a g o t independence. Jinnah became the first Governor-General of Pakistan. India requested Mountbatten to continue as the Governor-General of India. • Assembly and councils of the states were to be automatically dissolved. • For the transitional period, i.e., till a new Constitution was adopted by each dominion, the governments of the two dominions were to be carried on in accordance with the Government of India Act, 1935.

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of this state decided to join India. The Nizam of Hyderabad was forced to accede to the Indian Union in September 1948 AD. French Colonies, by the end of 1954 AD, the French colonies in Pondicherry– Chandranagar, Mahe, Karaikal and Yanam– came to an end. Portuguese Colonies: In 1954 AD, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Diu constituted the Portuguese colonies in 1961 AD.

Integration of States: By 15th August, 1947 AD, all the states except Kashmir, Junagadh and Hyderabad had signed the Instrument of Accession with India. The Maharaja of Kashmir acceded to India in October, 1947 AD when the irregular Pakistani troops invaded his state. The Nawab of Junagadh was a Muslim, whereas most of its people were Hindus. In February 1948 AD, through a referendum, the people

Caste Movements and Organisations Movements

Locations

Leaders

Satya Shodhak Samaj (1873)

Maharashtra

Jyotiba Phule

Shri Narayan Dharma Paripalan Yogam Movement (1902–03)

Kerala

Shri Narayan Guru

Bahujan Samaj (1910)

Satara, Maharashtra

Mukundro Patil

Harijan Sevak Sangh (1932)

Pune

Mahatma Ghandhi

Dravid Monnetra Kazhagam (1949)

Madras

C. N. Annadurai

Muslim Socio-Religious Movements Movements

Locations

Leaders

Fairazi Movement (1804)

Faridpur (Bengal)

Haji Sharitullah Dudhi Miyan

Deoband Movement (1867)

Deoband

Mohammad Qasim Nanutavi, Rashid Ahmed Ganghoi

Aligarh Movement (1875)

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Ahmadiya Movement (1889–90)

Faridkot

Mirza Ghulam Ahmed of Qadiyan

Ahrar Movement

Riza Khan and Ali Brothers

Growth of Modern Education in India Early Phase (1758 AD-1812 AD)

• Calcutta (Kolkata) and Madras (Chennai) Universities were established by Warren Hastings in 1781 AD for the study of the Muslim law. • Sanskrit College was established by Jonathan Duncan at Benares in 1791 AD for the study of Hindu law and philosophy. • Fort William College was established by Wellesley in 1800 AD.

Second Phase

• The greatest importance of the 1813 Act was that for the first time, the company

acknowledged the state responsibility for the promotion of education in India. • Establishment of Calcutta College in 1817 AD with the efforts of Raja Ram Mohan Roy for imparting Western education. • Bethune School was founded by J.E.D. Bethune at Kolkata (1849 AD).

Downward fellatio theory (Third Phase)

• In 1854 AD, Charles Wood prepared a dispatch on an Educational System for India, which came to be called the Magna Carta of education in the country. • In 1882 AD, Lord Ripon appointed the Hunter Commission under Sir W.W. Hunter. The Commission’s views were restricted to primary and secondary education.

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• The Punjab (1882) and Allahabad (1887) universities were established.

Fourth Phase (1901 AD-1920 AD)

• L o r d C u r z o n appointed U n i v e r s i t y Commission under Sir Thomas Rayleigh. Based on his report, Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904 AD.

Sergeant Plan, 1944 AD

• The Sergeant Plan, worked out by the Central Advisory Board of Education in 1944 AD, called for elementary and higher secondary schools, universal, free and compulsory education for children in the 6–11 age-group and a six-year school course for the 11–17 age‑group.

Important Foreign Travellers/ Envoys Megasthenes (302 BC-298 BC): An ambassador of Seleucus Nikator, he visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He wrote an interesting book ‘Indica’. Fa-Hien (405 AD-411 AD): He came to India during the reign of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya. He was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India. Hiuen-Tsang (630 AD-645 AD): He visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana. I-tsung (671 AD-695 AD): A Chinese traveller, he visited India in connection with Buddhism. Al-Masudi (957 AD): An Arab traveller, he has given an extensive account of India in his work ‘Muruj-ul-Zahab’. Al-Beruni (1024 AD-1030 AD): His real name was Abu Rehan Muhammad and he came to India along with Mahmud of Ghazni during one of his Indian raids. He wrote a book ‘Tahriq-i-Hind’. Marco Polo (1292 AD-1294 AD): A Venetian traveller, he visited South India in 1294 AD. [during the reign of Pandyan ruler of Madurai, Maravarman Kulasekhara (1272 AD-1311 AD)]. Ibn Batuta (1333 AD-1347 AD): A Morrish traveller, he visited India during the reign of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq. His book ‘Rehla’ throws light on the reign of Muhammad-bin-

Tughlaq and the geographical, economic and social conditions in India. Shihabuddin al-Umari (1348 AD): He gives a vivid account of India in his book ‘Masalik Albsar Fi-Mamalik al Amsar’. Nicolo Conti (1420 AD-1421 AD): A Venetian traveller, he gives a vivid account of the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar. Abdur Razzaq (1443 AD-1444 AD): He was a Persian traveller, stayed in the court of the Zamorin at Calicut. He has given a vivid account of the Vijayanagar Empire, especially of the city. Athanasius Nikitin (1470 AD-1474 AD): He was a Russian merchant. He described the condition of the Bahamani kingdom under Muhammad III (1463 AD-1482 AD). Buarte Barbosa (1500 AD-1516 AD): He was a Portuguese traveler. He had given a valuable narration of the government and the people of the Vijayanagar Empire. Dominigo Paes (1520 AD-1522 AD): He was a Portuguese traveller, who visited the court of Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagar Empire. Fornao (1535 AD-1537 AD): A Portuguese merchant, who visited the Vijayanagar Empire. William Hawkins (1608–1611 AD): He was an English ambassador of the British King James I to the court of Jahangir (1609). Sir Thomas Roe (1615 AD-1619 AD): He was an ambassador of James I, King of England, at the court of Jahangir. Peter Mundy (1630 AD-34 AD): He was an Italian traveller to the Mughal Empire in the reign of Shahjahan. Jeen Baptiste Tavernier (1638–1663 AD): He was a French traveller. His account covers the reign of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb. Nicolao Manucci (1653 AD-1708 AD): He was French physician and philosopher. Danishamand Khan a noble of Aurangzeb was his patron.

Important Sayings ‘Back to Vedas’–Dayanand Saraswati. ‘Dharma Chakra Pravartana’–Mahatma Buddha.

Indian History

‘Dilli Chalo’–Subhash Chandra Bose. ‘Do or Die.’–Mahatma Gandhi (while launching Quit India movement in 1942 AD). ‘Give me blood and I will give you freedom.’– Subhash Chandra Bose (in his address to soldiers of Azad Hind Fauj). ‘My ultimate aim is to wipe every tear from every eye’–Jawaharlal Nehru.

‘Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it’–Bal Gangadhar Tilak. ‘Every blow that is hurled on my back will be a nail in the coffin of the British Empire’– Lala Lajpat Rai. ‘The Congress is tottering to its fall and one of my greatest ambitions while in India is to assist it to a peaceful demise’–Lord Curzon.

Major Tribal Movements Tribe

Year

Chuars

1768–1832

Bhils

1818–1848

Hos Kolis Kharies Kols Kayar Kachnagar Ahom

Leader

Area W. Bengal

Sevaram

Khandesh

1820–1832 1824–48 1829–32 1831–32 1840–1924 1882 1828–33

Tirut Singh Budho Bagat Alluri Sitaram Raju Sambudhan Gomdhar Konovar

Chhotanagpur Sahyadri hills Khasi hills Chhotanagpur Andhra Pradesh Assam Assam

Khonds

1846–1914

Chattre Bisayi

Orissa

Santhals Naikadas Mundas Bhils Oraons Kukis Rampa

1855–56 1858–68 1899–1900 1913 1914–1915 1917–19 1916

Sidhu and Kanhu Jogia Bhagat Birsa Munda Govind Guru Jatra Bhagat Rani Gaidinlue Alluri Sitaram Raju

Rajmahal Hills Gujarat Chhotanagpur South Rajasthan Chhotanagpur Manipur Andhra Pradesh

Early Associations Year 1838 1839 1851 1862 1866 1867 1872 1876 1883 1884 1885 1888 1905 1920 1923

Organisation Landholders Society British India Society British India Association London India Committee East India Association National Indian Association Indian Society Indian Association Indian National Society Indian National Conference Bombay Presidency Association United India Patriotic Association Servants of India Society Indian Trade Union Congress Swaraj Party

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Founder Dwaraknath Tagore William Adams Devendranath Tagore C.P. Mudaliar Dadabhai Naoroji Mary Carpenter Anand Mohan Bose Anand Mohan Bose and S.N. Banerjee Shishir Chandra Bose S.M. Banerjee Mehta and Telang Sir Syed Ahmed Khan G.K. Gokhale N.M. Joshi (founder) Moti Lal Nehru and C.R. Das

Place Calcutta London Calcutta London London London London Calcutta Calcutta Calcutta Bombay Aligarh Bombay Lucknow Delhi

92 1924 1928 1928 1936 1939 1940 1942

General Knowledge  2020 All India Communist Party Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Khudai Khidmatgar All India Kisan Sabha Forward Bloc Radical Democratic Party Revolutionary Socialist Party

Satyabhakta Bhagat Singh, B.K. Singh and Vohra

Kanpur Delhi

Abdul Gaffar Khan Sahajananda and N.J. Ranga Subhash Chandra Bose M.N. Roy Satyendra Nath Tagore

Peshawar Lucknow Calcutta Calcutta Calcutta

Important Congress Sessions Year 1885 1886 1887 1888 1890 1907 1908 1916 1917 1922 1924 1925

Place Bombay Calcutta Madras Allahabad Calcutta Surat Madras Lucknow Calcutta Gaya Belgaum Kanpur

1927

Madras

1928

Calcutta

1929

Lahore

1931 1934 1937

Karachi Bombay Faizpur

1939

Tripura

Importance at Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College, 72 delegates 436 delegates Tayabji became first Muslim President. George Yule became first English President Decision taken to organise a session of Congress. Congress split Constitution for the Congress. Congress merger. Pact with Muslim League, Annie Besant became 1st women President. Formation of Swaraj Party. Gandhi became President. Sarojini Naidu became 1st Indian women President. Nehru and S.C. Bose moved resolution for independence and it was passed for the 1st time. First All India Youth Congress. ‘Poorna Swaraj’ (Complete Independence) resolution pledge for Independence day on 26th January, 1930. Resolution for Fundamental Rights and National Economic Policy. Formation of Congress Socialist Party. Demand for Constituent Assembly. S.C. Bose resigned due to difference with Gandhiji’s resignation Rajendra Prasad became of INC President.

Newspapers/Magazines/Weeklies Newspapers/Magazines Harijan Bandhu, Harijan Sevak Samvad Kaumudi, Mirat-al-Akhbar Tattvabodhini Patrika, Indian Mirror Banga Darshan Maratha (English) and Kesari (Marathi) The Punjabi, ‘The Pupil’ (English) New India Bande Mataram The Comrade Nation Karmyogi

Author/Editor Mahatma Gandhi Raja Ram Mohan Roy Maharishi Devendranath Tagore Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak Lala Lajpat Rai Bipin Chandra Pal Bipin Chandra Pal (edited by Aurobindo Ghosh) Mohammad Ali (during Khilafat movement) G.K. Gokhale Aurobindo Ghosh

Indian History Prabudha Bharat, Udbodhava Darpan Socialist Yugantar Talwar New India, Common Will Indian Sociologist (London) Bandi Jivan Al-Hilal

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Vivekananda Bal Shastri Jambekar S.A. Dange Barindra Kumar Ghose and Bhupendra Dutta (Anushilan Samiti) Verendranath Chattopadhyay Annie Besant Shyamji Krishnaverma Sachindranath Sanyal Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (during Khilafat)

Events/Acts/Reforms Events/Acts/Reforms Permanent Settlement (1793) Subsidiary Alliance (1798) Abolition of Sati (1829) Introduction of Civil Service Doctrine of Lapse Railways started in India Post and Telegraph English Education in India Vernacular Press Act (1878) Arms Act (1878) Local Self-government (1882) Ryotwari System Partition of Bengal (1905) Rowlatt Act (1919) Simon Commission (1928) Sepoy Mutiny (1857) Queen’s Proclamation (1858) Factory Act (1881) Repeal of Vernacular Press Act (1881) Indian Councils Act/Minto-Morley Reforms (1909) Partition of Bengal revoked (1911) Transfer of Capital to Delhi (1911) Dyarchy in province (1919) Jallianwala Bagh Tragedy (1919) Non-co-operation Poorna Swaraj Resolution (Lahore 1929) First Round Table Conference (1930) Gandhi-Irwin Pact (1931) Communal Award (1932) Poona Pact (1932) 2nd Round Table Conference (1931) 3rd Round Table Conference (1932)

Viceroy/Governor Generals Lord Cornwallis Lord Wellesley Lord William Bentinck Lord Cornwallis Lord Dalhousie Lord Dalhousie Lord Dalhousie Lord William Bentinck Lord Lytton Lord Lytton Lord Rippon Lord Munro Lord Curzon Lord Chelmsford Lord William Bentinck Lord Canning Lord Canning Lord Ripon Lord Canning Lord Minto Lord Hardinge Lord Hardinge Lord Chelmsford Lord Chelmsford Lord Chelmsford Lord Irwin Lord Irwin Lord Irwin Lord Wellington Lord Wellington Lord Wellington Lord Wellington

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General Knowledge  2020

Separate Electorates (1932) Government of India Act (1935) Provincial Autonomy (1937) Cripps Mission (1942) Quit India Movement Cabinet Mission (1946) INA Trial (1945) Indian Independence Act (1947) Partition of India (1947)

Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord

Wellington Wellington Linlithgow Linthgow Linlithgow Wavell Wavell Mountbatten Mountbatten

Famous Conspiracy Cases Date

Case Nasik Alipore Howrah case Dacca case Delhi case Lahore case Banaras case Kakori case

1909–10 1908 1910 1910 1915 1929–30 1915–16 1925

Accused Vinayak Savarkar Conspiracy Aurobindo Ghosh Jatin Mukherjee Pulin Das Amirchand, Awadh Bihari and Bal Mukund Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev Sachindranath Sanyal Rama Prasad Bismil and Ashfaq

Some Socio-Religious Reform Movements and Organisations Movement/ Organisation

Year

Place

Founder

Brahmo Samaj (earlier Atmiya Sabha)

1828

Calcutta

Raja Ram Mohan Roy

Young Bengal Movement

(1826-1831)

Calcutta

Henry Louis Vivian Derozio

Dharma Sabha

1830

Calcutta

Radha Kanta Deva

Namdhari/ Kuka Movement

1841-1871

N.W.F. Province and Bhaini (Ludhiana)

Bhai Balak Singh and Baba Ram Singh

Rahanumai Mazdayasan Sabha

1851

Bombay

S.S. Bangali, Dadabhai Naoroji Naoroji Furdonji, J.B. Nacha, etc.

Radha Swami Satsang

1861

Agra

Tulsi Ram also known as Shiv Dayal Saheb

Prarthana Samaj

1867

Bombay

Atmaram Pandurang Govind Ranade

Indian Reform Association

1870

Calcutta

Keshab Chandra Sen

Arya Samaj

1875

Bombay

Dayanand Saraswati (originally founder Mool Shankar)

The Theosophical Society

1875

New York (In India Adyar, Madras)

Madam H.P. Blavatsky, Col. H.S. Olcott (In India-Annie Besant)

Deccan Education Society

1884

Pune

M.G. Ranade, V. G. Chibdonkar, G. G. Agarkar, etc.

Indian History

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Seva Sadan

1885

Bombay

Behramji M. Malabari

Indian National Social Conference Deva Samaj

1887

Lahore

Shiva Narain Agnihotri

Madras Hindu Association

1892

Madras

Viresalingam Pantalu

Ramakrishna Mission

1897

Bengal

Vivekananda

Bharat Dharma Mahamandala

1902

Varanasi

Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya and Pandit Din Dayal Sharma

The Servants of India Society

1905

Bombay

Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Poona Seva Sadan

1909

Pune

G.K. Devadhar and Ramabai Ranade (wife of M.G. Ranade)

Nishkam Karma Math

1910

Pune

Dhondo Keshav Karve

Social Service League

1911

Bombay

Narayan Malhar Joshi

Peasant Movements Movement

Place

Year

Leaders

Titu Mir’s Movement

Bengal

(1782-1831)

Mir Nithar Ali/Titu Mir

Indigo Revolt

Bengal

1859

Bishnu and Digambar Biswas

Pabna

Bengal

1870

Ishwar Roy, Sabu Pal, Khoodi Mollah

Deccan Riots

Maharashtra

1875

Vasudev Balwant Phadke

Ramosi Movement

Maharashtra

1879

Vasudev Balwant Phadke

Bijolia

Rajasthan

1913

Sitaram Das, Vijay Pathak Singh

Champaran

Bihar

1917

Gandhiji

Kheda

Gujarat

1918

Vallabh Bhai Patel and Gandhiji

Awadh Kisan Sabha

Uttar Pradesh

1920

Baba Ramchandra

Eka Movement

Awadh

1921

Madari Pasi

Moplah

Kerala

1921

Sayyad Ali and Saiyed Fazl

Bardoli/Borsad

Gujarat

1928

Vallabh Bhai Patel N V Rama Naidu, N G Ranga

Forest Satyagrah

South India

1931

Tebhaga

Bengal

1946

Telangana

Andhra

1946

Puchalpalli Sundarayya

Secret Revolutionary Societies Society/Organisation

Year

Founder

Features

Anushilan Samiti (Dacca)

1902

Pulin Das

Earliest Secret Society in Bengal

Mitra Mela (Maharashtra)

1902

V. D. Savarkar

Earliest Secret Society in Maharashtra

Abhinav Bharat (Maharashtra)

1904

Ganesh Savarkar

Ganesh was the elder brother of V.D. Savarkar

Anushilan Samiti (Calcutta)

1907

Barindra Kumar Ghosh & P. Mitra

Hindustan Republican

1924

Sachindra Sanyal, It was an all India Chandrashekhar Azad level organisation

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General Knowledge  2020

Governor-Generals and Viceroys Robert Clive

Governor of Bengal during 1757 AD-1760 AD and again during 1765 AD-1767 AD. Also established Dual Government in Bengal from 1765 AD‑1772 AD.

Vansittart (1760 AD-1765 AD)

The Battle of Buxar (1764 AD).

Cartier (1769 AD-1772 AD)

Bengal Famine (1770 AD).

Warren Hastings (1772 AD-1774 AD)

Abolished Dual Government (1772 AD).

Warren Hastings (1774 AD-1785 AD)

• He became Governor of Bengal in 1772 AD and first Governor-General of Bengal in 1773 AD, through the Regulating Act. • E s t a b l i s h e d I n d i a ’ s f i r s t S u p r e m e Court in Calcutta. • He founded Asiatic Society of Bengal with William Jones in 1784 AD and wrote introduction to the first English translation of the Gita by Charles Wilkins. • A translation of code in Sanskrit appeared under the title ‘Code of Gentoo laws’. • First Anglo-Maratha War during his period, which ended with Treaty of Salbai (1776 AD-1782 AD). • Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780 AD-1784 AD) ended with the Treaty of Mangalore. • Rohilla War in 1774 AD. • Pitt’s India Act, 1784. • Impeachment proceedings started against him in Britain on the charges of taking bribe. After a trial of 7 years, he was finally acquitted. Revenue Reforms: Divided Bengal into districts and appointed Collectors other revenue officials.

Judicial Reforms: Started Diwani and Faujdari Adalats at the district level and Sadar Diwani and Nizamat Adalats at Calcutta appeared in 1776 AD under the title of ‘Code of Gentoo laws’.

Lord Cornwallis (1786 AD-1793 AD)

• First person to codify laws (1793 AD). • He introduced Izaredari System in 1773 AD. • He started the permanent settlement of Bengal. • He created the post of District Judge. He is called Father of Civil Services in India. • Third Anglo-Mysore War and the Treaty of Srirangapatnam. • He undertook police reforms.

Sir John Shore (1793 AD-1798 AD)

• Introduced First Charter Act (1793 AD). • Famous for his policy of non-interference. • Battle of Kharda between Nizam and Marathas (1795 AD).

Lord Wellesley (1798 AD-1803 AD)

• Introduced the system of Subsidiary alliance. Madras Presidency was formed during his tenure. • Fourth Anglo-Mysore war in 1799 AD, Tipu Sultan died. • First subsidiary treaty with Nizam of Hyderabad. • In 1800 AD, he set up Fort William College in Calcutta. He was famous as Bengal Tiger. • He brought the censorship of Press Act, 1799 AD. • Treaty of Bassein in 1802 AD. Subsidiary Alliance • The Peshwa, the Bhonsle, the Scindia and Rajputs of Jodhpur, Jaipur accepted the subsidiary alliance.

Sir George Barlow (1805 AD-1807 AD)

• Vellore mutiny (1806 AD, by soldiers). • Second Anglo-Maratha War ended.

Indian History

Lord Minto (1807 AD-1813 AD)

• Treaty of Amritsar (1809 AD) with Ranjit Singh. • Charter Act of 1813 AD ended the monopoly of East India Company in India. • • • •

Lord Hastings (1813 AD-1823 AD)

Adopted the policy of intervention and war. Anglo-Nepal War (1813 AD-1823 AD). Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817 AD-1818 AD). Introduced the Ryotwari settlement in Madras by Thomas Munro, the Governor. • Treaty of Sangli with Gorkhas (1816 AD). • Treaty of Poona (1817 AD) with Peshwa. • Suppression of Pindaris (1817 AD-1818 AD).

Lord Amherst (1823 AD-1828 AD)

• First Anglo Burmese War (1824 AD-1826 AD), signed Treaty of Gandaboo in 1826 AD. • Acquisition of Malaya Peninsula and Bharatpur (1826 AD).

Governor-Generals of India Lord William Bentinck (1828 AD-1834 AD)

• Regarded as the ‘Father of Modern Western Education in India’. • Abolition of Sati in 1829 AD. • Suppression of Thugi (1830 AD), curbed by colonel sleeman. • Deposition of Raja of Mysore and annexation of his territories (1831 AD). • He was First Governor-General of India. • First Medical College was opened in Calcutta in 1835 AD. • Treaty of Friendship with Ranjit Singh (1831 AD).

Sir Charles Metcalfe (1834 AD-1836 AD)

Passed the famous Press Law, which liberated the press in India. He is known as liberator of press.

Lord AUckland (1836 AD-1842 AD)

1st Anglo-Afghan War (1836 AD-1842 AD).

Lord Ellenborough (1842 AD-1844 AD)

Abolished slavery (1843 AD). Annexation of Sindh (1843).

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Lord Hardinge (1844 AD-1848 AD)

• First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) and the Treaty of Lahore. • Prohibition of female infanticide.

Lord Dalhousie (1848 AD-1856 AD)

Abolished Titles and pensions, Widow Remarriage Act (1856 AD). Wars: Introduced Doctrine of Lapse; Captured Satara (1848 AD), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849 AD), Baghat (1850 AD), Udaipur (1852 AD), Jhansi (1853 AD), and Nagpur (1854 AD); Fought 2nd Anglo-Sikh War (1848 AD-1849 AD) and annexed the whole of the Punjab; Annexation of Berar in 1853 Annexation of Awadh in 1856 AD on charges of mal-administration. • Santhal uprisings (1855 AD-1856 AD). • Nationalist Educational Institutions were founded. Administrative Reforms: Raised Gurkha regiments. Educational Reforms: Wood’s Educational Despatch of 1854 AD. An Engineering College was established at Roorkee. Public Works: Started the first railway line in 1853 AD; Started electric telegraph service. Laid the basis of the modern Postal System (1854 AD); A separate public works department was set up for the first time. Lord Canning (1856 AD-1858 AD): The last Governor General of India; Revolt of 1857 AD; Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.

Viceroys of India

The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras founded in 1857 AD. Lord Canning (1858 AD-1862 AD) The Indian Councils Act of 1861 AD was passed; Indian Penal Code of Criminal Procedure (1859 AD) was passed; The Indian High Court Act (1861 AD) was enacted; Income-tax was introduced for the first time in 1858 AD. Lord Elgin I (1862 AD-1863 AD): Suppression of Wahabi Movement (PlanIslamic Movement).

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General Knowledge  2020

Sir Johan Lawrence (1864 AD-1869 AD): High Courts were established at Calcutta Bombay and Madras in 1865 AD; Bhutan War (1865 AD); Created the Indian Forests Department and reorganised the native judicial service.

Lord Mayo (1869 AD-1872 AD)

• H e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f Agriculture and Commerce. • In 1872 AD, first Census was done in India. • He was the only Viceroy to be murdered in office by a convict in the Andaman in 1872 AD.

Lord Northbrook (1872 AD-1876 AD)

• He resigned over Afghanistan question. • Kuka Movement of Punjab (1872) • Visit of Prince of wales in 1875.

Lord Lytton (1876 AD-1880 AD)

Most infamous Governor-General; Arranged the Grand Darbar in Delhi; Royal Title Act (1876 AD) was passed and Queen Victoria was declared the Kaisar-a-Hind. • Arms Act (1878 AD) made it mandatory for Indians to acquire license for arms; passed the infamous Vernacular Press Act (1878 AD) and lowered the maximum age of ICS from 21 to 19 years.

Lord Rippon (1880 AD-1884 AD)

• Repeal the Vernacular Press Act in 1882 AD. • The first Factory Act came in 1881 AD, to improve the labour condition. • He was famously known as “Father of Local Self-Government”. • First Official Census in India (1881 AD). • Appointed Hunter Commission for education reforms in 1882 AD. • The Illbert Bill controversy (1883 AD1884 AD).

Lord Dufferin (1884 AD-1888 AD)

• Formation of Indian National Congress (INC) in 1885 AD. • Dufferin called INC as ‘microscopic minority’. • Third Burmese war, Burma annexed.

Lord Lansdowne (1888 AD-1894 AD)

• Civil Services were classified-Imperial, Provincial and Subordinate services. • Appointment of Durand Commission to define the line between British India and Afghanistan.

Lord Elgin II (1894 AD-1899 AD)

• The Munda uprising (Birsa Munda) of 1899 AD, Great famine in 1896-1897, Lyell Commission appointed after famine (1897 AD).

Lord Curzon (1899 AD-1905 AD)

• Appointed a Police Commission in 1902 AD under Andrew Frazer. • Indian Universities Act passed in 1904 AD. • Famine Commission under MacDonnell. • Introduction of Ancient Monuments Preservation Act 1904. • Partition of Bengal in 1905.

Lord Minto II (1905 AD-1910 AD)

• Swadeshi Movement (1905 AD-1908 AD); Foundation of the Muslim League, 1906 AD; Surat session and split in the Congress (1907 AD). Newspaper Act 1908; MorleyMinto Reforms, 1909.

Lord Hardinge (1910 AD-1916 AD)

• Annulment of the Partition of Bengal (1911), Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi (1911); Delhi Darbar and Coronation of King George V and Queen Mary (1911); Establishment of Hindu Mahasabha by Madan Mohan Malviya (1915). • In 1911, Bihar and Orissa separated from Bengal and, became a new state. • Gandhiji came back to India from South Africa (1915).

Lord Chelmsford (1916 AD-1921 AD)

• Home Rule Movement launched by Tilak and Annie Besant (1916); Lucknow Pact between Congress and Muslim League (1916); Champaran Satyagraha (1917); Montague’s August Declaration (1917); Constitutional Reforms of 1919; Repressive Rowlatt Act (1919); Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919), appointment of Hunter Commission

Indian History

to probe Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, Khilafat Movement (1920–1922); Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922).

Lord Reading (1921 AD-1926 AD)

• Rowlatt Act was repealed along with Press Act of 1910. • Holding of the simultaneous examination for the ICS in England and India from 1923. • Chauri-Chaura incident and withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement. • Formation of Swaraj Party by CR Das and Motilal Nehru (1923). • Kakori Train Conspiracy (1925). • Lee Commission (1924) for public services. • RSS founded in 1925.

Lord Irwin (1926 AD-1931 AD)

• Simon Commission visited India in 1928. • Nehru Report, 1928. • Lahore Session of the Congress, (1929) and Poorna Swaraj, declaration. • Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930 started. • Dandi March (12 March 1930). • Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 5 March 1931. • Sharda Act, 1929, under which marriageable age of girls (14 years) and boys (18 years) was raised. • Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Chandra Bose founded Independence of India League.

Lord Willingdon (1931 AD-1936 AD)

• Civil Disobedience Movement (1932); Announcement of MacDonald. Communal Award (1932); Foundation of Congress Socialist Party–CSP (1934); Burma Separated from India (1935), All India Kisan Sabha (1936).

Lord Linlithgow (1934 AD-1944 AD)

• First General Election (1936–37) Congress Ministries. • Deliverance day by Muslim League 1939. • Lahore Resolution of Muslim League (1940) demand of Pakistan. • August Offer, 1940. • Cripps Mission, 1942. • Quit India Movement, 1942.

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• “Divide and Quit” at the Karachi Session (1940). • In Haripura Session (1939) of Congress complete Independence was declared.

Lord Wavell (1943 AD-1947 AD)

• C.R. Formula, 1944; Wavell Plan and Shimla Conference in 1945; INA Trials in 1945; Navsari mutiny in 1946; Cabinet Mission 1946; Direct Action Day by the Muslim League on 16th August, 1946. Formation of Interim Government by the congress in September, 1946.

Lord Mountbatten (March-August 1947)

• Announced the 3rd June, 1947 Plan.

Governor Generals of Free India (1947 AD-1950 AD) Lord Mountbatten (1947–1948)

The first Governor General of free India Kashmir Acceded to India (Oct. 1947); Murder of Gandhi (Jan. 30, 1948).

C. Rajagopalachari (June 1948–January 25, 1950)

The last Governor General of free India; The only Indian Governor General.

Important National Leaders Annie Besant (1847 AD-1933 AD)

• She founded the Theosophical Society in India and started the Home Rule League. • She established Central Hindu School and College at Banaras (Later BHU). • She was elected the President of the Calcutta Session of INC, 1917. • She edited famous newspapers–new India and Commonwealth. • She prepared–The Lotus Song, a translation of Gita into English.

Bhagat Singh (1907 AD-1931 AD)

• He was a member of Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. • He started the ‘Militant Naujawan Bharat Sabha’ in Punjab.

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General Knowledge  2020

• He killed British official Saunders in 1928 and was involved in Lahore Conspiracy and bombed the Central Legislative Assembly. • He was executed on 23rd March, 1931.

Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1833 AD-1894 AD)

• Best known for the composition of the hymn Bande Mataram. • His first novel was Durgeshnandini, published in 1864 and he started the journal Bangadarsan.

Bipin Chandra Pal (1858 AD-1932 AD)

• He was awarded with the title of the Mightiest Prophet of Nationalism by Aurobindo Ghosh. • He started Newspapers–Paridashak (weekly); Public Opinion and Tribune (editor); Swaraj (English weekly in London); Hindu Review (English monthly); Independent (daily); Democrat (weekly).

Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (1879 AD-1972 AD)

• He started the CDM in Tamil Nadu. • He prepared the CR Formula for CongressLeague Cooperation. • He was the first and last Indian Governor General of India (1948‑1950). • He became the Minister of Home Affairs in the country’s first Cabinet. • He founded the Swatantra Party in 1959. • His rational ideas are reflected in the collection Satyameva Jayate. • He was awarded the Bharat Ratna in 1954.

Dadabhai Naoroji (1825 AD-1917 AD)

• He was the first Indian to demand Swaraj in the Calcutta Session of INC, 1906. • He was also known as the Indian Gladstone and Grand Old Man of India. • He was first Indian to be selected to the House of Commons on Liberal Party ticket. • He highlighted the draining of wealth from India by the British and its effect in his book Poverty and Unbritish Rule in India (1901).

More At @Aj_ebooks Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar (1891 AD-1956 AD)

• He founded the Depressed Classes Institute (1924) and Samaj Samata Sangh (1927). • He participated in all the Three Round Table Conferences and signed the Poona Pact with Mahatma Gandhi in 1932. • He was in the Governor-General’s Executive Council from 1942 to 1946 and organised the Indian Labour Party and Scheduled Caste Federation. • He became the Chairman of the Drafting Committee of Indian Constitution. • As the first Law Minister of the independent India, he introduced the Hindu Code Bill. • He started The Republican Party in 1956. • Towards the end of his life, he embraced Buddhism.

Dr. Rajendra Prasad (1884 AD-1963 AD)

• He founded the National College at Patna. • He was elected as the Minister in-charge of Food and Agriculture in the Interim Government (1946). • He was the President of the Constituent Assembly. • He became the first President of the Indian Republic. He was honoured with Bharat Ratna in 1962. • He edited the newspaper–Desh (Hindi weekly).

Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1886 AD-1915 AD)

• Gandhiji regarded him as his political guru. • He was the President of the Banaras Session of INC, 1905, supported the Swadeshi Movement. • He was the founder of the Servants of Indian Society in 1905.

Jawaharlal Nehru (1889 AD-1964 AD)

• T h e I n d e p e n d e n c e r e s o l u t i o n w a s passed under his Presidentship at the Lahore Session. • He was the first Prime Minister of Republic India (from 1947 to 1964), also known as architect of Modern India. He authored the Doctrine of Panchsheel and believed in the policy of non-alignment.

Indian History

• Books–Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, A Bunch of Old Letters, Unity of India, Independence and After, India and the World, etc. • H i s a u t o b i o g r a p h y w a s e n t i t l e d a s Auto-biography.

Rabindranath Tagore

• His first poem was published in the ‘Amrita Bazar Patrika’ and then he wrote ‘Banaphul’ (story) and ‘Bhanusinher Padavali’ (series of lyrics). • He founded Shantiniketan near Bolpore on 2nd December, 1901. • He wrote Gitanjali, which fetched him the Nobel Prize in 1913. • He inaugurated Raksha Bandhan festival to oppose the Partition of Bengal (1905). • He founded the Vishwa Bharati University. • In 1915, British Crown granted him a knighthood, which he renounced after the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre. • His compositions were chosen as National Anthem by two nations i. India–Jana Gana Mana ii. Bangladesh–Amar Sonar Bangla

Subhash Chandra Bose

• He founded the Independence for India League with Jawaharlal Nehru.

101

• He was elected as the President of INC at its Haripura Session (1938) and Tripuri Session (1939), but resigned from Tripuri due to differences with Gandhiji. • He founded the Forward Bloc (1939) and Kisan Sabha. • He took the charge of Indian Army (Azad Hind Fauj) in 1943 in Singapore and set up Indian Provisional government there. • He addressed Mahatma Gandhi as the Father of the Nation. • He gave the famous slogans–Dilli Chalo and Jai Hind. • The India Struggle was his autobiography.

Sarojini Naidu (1979–1949)

• Popularly known as the Nightingale of India she became the first woman to participate in the India’s struggle for independence. • She participated in the Dandi March with Mahatma Gandhi and presided over the Kanpur Session of Congress in 1925. • She was the first woman to become the Governor of Uttar Pradesh State. • Her famous books include–The Golden Threshold (1905). The Feather of the Dawn; The Bird of Time (1912) and The Broken Wing (1917).   

Art and Culture

105

Art and Culture of India Religion in India Hinduism

• The two sects of Jainism are Svetambaras and Digambaras. Jain holy texts consist of Purvas, Agamas, Angas and Upangas.

• There is no specific founder of the Hindu Indian Literature and religion. Languages • Its roots can be traced to the historical Vedic religion of the Iron Age India. Sanskrit • Hinduism is the third largest religion in the • Sanskrit is the mother of many Indian world after Islam and Christianity. languages. • Prominent texts are Vedas, Ramayana • Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and Dhar­ and Mahabharata. masutras are all written in Sanskrit. • Dharmasutra, Manusmriti, Arthashastra Islam and Gita Govindam are all famous books • Prophet Mohammed is the founder of Islam. in Sanskrit. • Quran is the Holy book of Islam. • Most muslims belong to two denominations; Shia and Sunni.

Christianity

• Jesus is the founder of Christianity. • Bible is the Holy book of the Christians. • Holy texts of Christianity are the Old Testament and the New Testament.

Sikhism

• Guru Nanak is the founder of Sikhism. • Guru Granth Sahib is the Holy book of Sikhs. • Sikhism is the third largest religion of India.

Buddhism

• Mahatma Buddha is the founder of Buddhism. • Buddhism is the indigenous religion of India. • Tripitaka is the Holy book of Buddhists.

Jainism

• Swami Mahavira is the founder of Jainism. • Kalpa Sutras is the Holy book of Jainism. • T h e m a i n d o c t r i n e s o f J a i n i s m a r e Anekantavada, Syadvada and Nayavada.

Pali

• Pali is an Indo-Aryan language, which was used for the earliest Buddhist scriptures. Pali literature is mainly concerned with Theravada Buddhism.

Telugu

• The Vijyanagara period was the golden age of Telugu literature. • There are eight Telugu literary luminaries popularly known as Ashtadiggajas. • Ramakrishna was the author of Panduranga Mahatmayam, which was considered one of the greatest poetical works of Telugu literature.

Kannada

• The earliest known literary work in Kannada is Kavirajamarga written by the Rashtrakuta King Nrupatunga Amoghavarsha I. • Pampa, known as the father of Kannada, wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vikramajiva Vijaya in the 10th century AD.

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General Knowledge  2020

Malayalam

• The Malayalam language emerged around the 11th century AD. By 15th century AD, Malayalam was recognised as an independent language. • Bhasha Kautilya, a commentary on Arthashastra and Kokash Nisam are the two great works. • R a m a P a n i k k a r a n d R a m a n u j a n Ezhuthachan are the well-known authors of the Malayalam literature. • Tamil is the mother-tongue of the Dravidian family. • The Sangam literature is a collection of long and short poems composed by various poets in praise of numerous heroes and heroines.

Persian and Urdu

• Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and Persian. • The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to be Khusro. • Urdu has given a new form of poetry called nazm.

Hindi

• Hindi is the direct descendant of the Sanskrit language through Prakrit and Apabhramsha. • The evolution of Hindi literature can be better understood through four stages: Adi Kal, Bhakti Kal, Riti Kavya Kal and Adhunik Kal.

Languages in the 8th Schedule Assamese Bengali Gujarati Hindi Kannada Kashmiri Konkani Malyalam Manipuri Marathi Nepali Oriya

• Indian literature is one of the oldest languages in the world. India has 22 officially recognised languages and a huge body of literature is produced in each of these languages. • In Indian literature, oral and written forms are both important and Hindu literary traditions dominate a large part of early literature.

Sanskrit Literature

Tamil

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Literature of India

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Punjabi Sanskrit Sindi Tamil Telugu Urdu Bodo Santhali Maithili Dogri

• The old Indo-Aryan language, Sanskrit is the classical literary language of Hinduism. • Sanskrit literature traces its roots back to the Vedic period. • The earliest forms of theatrical arts could have existed in the form of dance dramas evidenced by iconography from the Indus Valley Civilisation. • This form of theatre died a natural death along with the Indus Valley Civilisation and was later replaced by the dramatic forms of the Vedic Age. • Many dramatists based their works around the plot of Ramayana and Mahabharata. • Kalidas is a pioneer of Sanskrit literature – Shakuntala and Meghdutum are his famous plays. • Other playwrights like Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika; Bhasa composed Svapna Vasavadattam; Chanakya wrote Arthshastra and Vatsyayana wrote Kamasutra. These are also the landmarks of Sanskrit. The most well-known Sanskrit dramatists are Sudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosha and Kalidasa.

Hindi Literature

• Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional–Kabir, Raskhan); Shringar (beauty–Keshav, Bihari); VeerGatha (extolling brave warriors); and Adhunik (modern). • It contains literature in all Hindi languages, including its dialects like: Brij Bhasha, Bundeli, Awadhi, Kannauji, Marwari, Maithili, Magahi, Bhojpuri and Bihari languages and Khari boli (Modern Standard

Art and Culture

Hindi) in Devnagari script, the dialect which is one of India’s official languages.

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• While it tends to be heavily dominated by poetry, the range of expression achieved in the voluminous library of a few major Tamil Literature verse forms, especially the ghazal and The history of Tamil literature dates back to nazm, has led to its continued development the pre-Christian era. and expansion into other styles of writing, Sangam literature comprises some of the including that of the short story, or afsana. oldest extant Tamil literature, and deals • It is most popular today in the countries with love, war, governance, trade and of India and Pakistan and is finding bereavement. interest in foreign countries, primarily Unfortunately, much of the Tamil literature through South Asians. belonging to the Sangam period had been lost. Punjabi Literature After the eighth century AD, Jain scholars translated some Sanskrit works into • Punjabi is an ancient language, but started its literary career pretty late. Tamil while certain other works were • During medieval times, Punjab repeatedly based on Sanskrit. bore the brunt of Afghan invaders and It was then that some scholars realised that internal battles, and these warring times both Tamil and Sanskrit scholars function were not exactly feasible for any sort of as two distinct groups within a single literary or cultural expansion. cultural milieu. • Punjabi literature as such came into They attempted to bring them together by existence only from the end of the 16th innovating a new style of hybrid writing century when Punjabi was already in its called manippravala, where equal amount Middle Period. of Sanskrit and Tamil words were used like • The script is Gurmukhi, which is based pearl and coral. on Devanagri. • Some of the early writings, such as those of Kannada Literature the first Sikh Guru, Nanak (late 15th and Kannada literature is the body of literature early 16th centuries), are in Old Hindi rather of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken than true Punjabi. mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and • The first work identifiable as Punjabi is the written in the Kannada script. Janam-sakhi, a 16th-century biography The literature, which has a continuous of Guru Nanak. tradition from the 9th century AD to the present, is usually divided into three Bengali Literature linguistic phases: Old (850–1200 AD), Middle • Bengali literary heritage originates from and (1200–1700 AD) and Modern (1700–present). is neatly intertwined with the classical IndoIts literary characteristics are categorised Aryan Sanskrit language and literature. as Jain, Veerashaiva and Vaishnava– • But the influence of other non-Aryan symbolising the three dominant faiths that languages on Bengali cannot be ignored. both gave form to and fostered it until the • It is now more or less accepted that Bengali advent of the modern era. Although much and languages of the neigbouring states belong to the Austric (or Austro-Asiatic) of the literature before 1700 was religious, family of languages. some secular works were also created. • Whilst Bengali carries the distinct mark Urdu Literature of the Indo-Aryan social and cultural Urdu literature has a long and colourful values, expressions or syntactic and history that is inextricably tied to the grammatical constraints, according to development of that very language, Urdu, Professor Sunitikumar Chatterjee, there is, in which it is written. of course, the preserve of Kol and Dravidian

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(the Santals, the Malers, the Oraons) in the western fringes of the Bengal area, and of the Boda and Mon-Khmer speakers in the northern and eastern frontiers.

Malayalam Literature

• Malayalam is a language of the Dravidian family. • It is very close to Tamil, one of the major languages of the same family. • This was due to the extensive cultural synthesis that took place between the speakers of the two languages. • Tamil, in Kerala was, for long, the language of administration. • This has resulted in Tamil being used in literature too. In addition, Malayalam was influenced by Sanskrit also. • Malayalam absorbed a lot from Sanskrit, not only in the lexical level, but also in the phonemic, morphemic and grammatical levels of language. • Looking back, we see that early Malayalam literature consists of three streams, namely Folk Literature, Early Tamil Literature and Manipravalam Literature.

Marathi Literature

• Marathi can be traced back far beyond the 10th century. • It descends from Sanskrit through Pali, Maharashtri and Maharashtra-Apabhramsa. Marathi literature first made its appearance in the 10th century AD and can be grouped into two ages: Ancient or Old Marathi Literature (1000–1800) and Modern Marathi Literature (1800 onwards). • The former consisted mainly of poetry composed in metres and restricted to the poet‘s choice of words and rhythms. • It was particularly devotional, narrative and pessimistic for old Marathi poets had not been able to develop satire, parody, irony and humor into their poetry.

Gujarati Literature

• Gujarati is an Indian language spoken in the state of Gujarat. • Gujarati literature may be traced to the sultanate days.

• Literature flourished during the period. Well-known literatures during that period were Akho, Vallabh, and Shamal. • The poet Dalpatram is considered to be the father of modern Gujarati literature.

Oriya Literature

• Oriya is an official language of the state of Orissa, India, a region known at different stages of history as Kalinga, Udra, Utkala, or Koshala. • The earliest written texts in the language are about thousand years old. • Orissa was a vast empire in the ancient and medieval times, which extended from the Ganges in the north to the Godavari in the south. • Oriya is classified as a member of the IndoAryan language super family; it is a descendent of Odri Prakrit and Ardha Magadhi. • This form of Prakrit was, in turn, derived from Sanskrit via the transitional Bibhasas.

Sindhi Literature

• Sindhi language is ancient and rich in literature. • Its writers have contributed extensively in various forms of literature both in poetry and prose. • Sindhi literature is very rich and oldest literature in the world’s literatures.

Telugu Literature

• Telugu literature is the literature of the Telugu people, an ethnic group based in southern India. • Telugu literature prior to Nannayya Bhattarakudu’s Andhra Mahabharatamu was not preserved, except by royal grants and decrees. • It was almost the end of the eleventh century by the time the original Telugu literature came to exist. So, Nannayya is known as Aadi Kavi (the first poet).

Assamese Literature

• Assam has an unbroken heritage of written literature starting from at least the 13th century.

Art and Culture

• The earliest known patronage of such efforts had come from the Kamata royal court since two of the earliest Assamese poets Harivara Vipra and Hema Saraswati wrote benedictory verses in praise of the Kamata King Durlabh Narayan. • Great Sanskrit scholars, Sankaradeva and Madhavadeva took Assamese language and literature to unprecedented heights of artistic excellence. • What is more, the high spiritual and artistic ideals combined with a wholesome sense of direction, held aloft first by Sankaradeva and then by Madhavadeva, inspired a whole lot of creative writers, both during their lifetimes and after. • As a result, Assamese Vaishnavite literature is exceptionally rich in volume, range and flavour. Literature of Shakta affiliation as well as works on various secular subjects also equally developed through the centuries.

Indian Writing in English

• Indian English Literature (IEL) refers to the body of work by writers in India who write in the English language and whose native or co-native language could be one of the numerous languages of India. • It is also associated with the works of members of the Indian diaspora, especially people like Salman Rushdie, who was born in India. It is frequently referred to as IndoAnglian literature. • As a category, this production comes under the broader realm of postcolonial literature– the production from previously colonised countries, such as India.

Indian Architecture Indus Valley Civilisation

• India’s cultural history dates back to about 3200 BC to the times of the Indus Valley Civilisation or what is also called the Harappan Culture. • It flourished for about a thousand years. • This civilisation came to light in 1922 while archaeologists were carrying on excavations at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, now in

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Pakistan. Since then, many other Harappan sites and artifacts, such as seals, toys, weapons, sculptures and jewellery have been discovered along the river Indus up to the river Ganges in the East. Archaeologists believe that a number of communities lived here in villages, towns and sea-ports. The sea-port of Lothal on the Gulf of Cambay has an enclosed shipping dock more than 216 metres long and 37 metres wide. It was controlled by a sluice-gate and ships could be loaded at both high and low tides. Other buildings unearthed in the citadel are the Great Bath, Granaries, residential houses and the Assembly Hall.

The Mauryan Period

• In Mauryan period, most of the shapes and decorative forms employed were indigenous in origin; some exotic forms show the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptian cultures. • The famous city of Pataliputra was described in detail by Megasthenese, references of which are found in the writings of Strabo, Arian and other Greek writers. • It stretched along the river Ganga. It was enclosed by a wooden wall and had 64 gates. Excavations have brought to light remains of palaces and the wooden palisade. • The Mauryan wooden palace survived for about 700 years because at the end of the 4th century AD, when Fa Hien saw, it was astounding. • The palace and also the wooden palisade seem to have been destroyed by fire. The burnt wooden structure and ashes have been found from Kumrahar. • Seven rock-cut caves in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills show that the tradition of rockcut caves in India began with the Mauryas. • These caves were caused to be excavated by Ashoka and his grandson Dasaratha for the abode of Ajivika monks. • The most extraordinary object of Mauryan period was monolithic stone pillars of up to 15 m height with a capital.

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• The pillars comprised two pars a shaft tapering from the base with a diameter from about 90 cm to 125 cm. • These pillars had a capital at the top which was adorned with animal figurines. • The main animal figurines were lions, horses, bulls and elephants. • The pillars and the capitals were made of sandstone near Chunar in Mirzapur district. • They were all polished which gave them a shine. • Some Yaksha and Yakshini figures have been found from Mathura, Pawaya and Patna. • They are large-sized statues representing folk art of the period.

The Stupas

• In the period between the Mauryas and the Guptas, the older stupas were greatly enlarged and beautified. • The Bharhut Stupa, perhaps in its present form dating from the middle of the 2nd century BC, is important for its sculpture, as the stupa itself has now vanished. • In the days of the Mauryan emperor, Ashoka, a brick stupa measuring about 68 feet in diameter and covered with plaster was constructed at Bharhut. • During the reign of the Sungas, who were in power in the second century BC and reigned till the year 72 BC, a richly decorated stone railing, 88 feet in diameter, was added to enclose the mound. • The representation of Buddha in human as well as in symbolic form is an important feature of Bharhut art. • The Sanchi stupa is, of course, famous. Sanchi is unique in having the most perfect and well-preserved stupas, and Buddhist art and architecture pertaining to a period of about thirteen hundred years, from the third century BC to the twelfth century AD–almost covering the whole range of Buddhism. • The foundation of the great religious establishment of Sanchi was probably laid by Ashoka (c. 273–236 BC), when he built a stupa and erected a monolithic pillar here. It was enlarged to twice its original size, becoming a hemisphere of about 120 feet in diameter, in the 2nd century BC, under the Sungas.

• It was then faced with well-cut masonry laid in regular courses, and an upper terraced path was added. The old wooden railings were replaced by stone ones, tenoned and mortised in imitation of carpentry. • Towards the end of the first century BC, under the Satavahanas, four gateways (torana) were added at the four cardinal points. The gateways are remarkable for their carved ornamentation. • The Amaravati stupa, which is in its final form, was completed around 200 AD, had carved panels telling the story of the life of the Buddha. • The sculpture, beautiful and idealistically treated, showed for the first time, Buddha as a divinity, receiving worship. • The stupa must have covered about 600 sq. m.

The Schools of Art Gandhara School of Art (50 BC to 500 AD)

• It is the region extending from Punjab to the borders of Afghanistan. • It was an important centre of Mahayana Buddhism up to the 5th century AD. • It imbibed all kinds of foreign influences, like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan. • During the reign of Kanishka this art received great patronage. • It was also known as the Graeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques of Art were applied to Buddhist subjects. • The most important contribution–evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and Bodhisattavas, which were executed in blackstone and modelled on identical characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon. • ‘Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian.’ • The most characteristic trait–depiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seated positions. • Typical feature-rich carving, elaborate orna­ mentation and complex symbolism. • Tallest rock-cut statue of Lord BuddhaBamiyan (Afghanistan) 3–4 century AD.

Art and Culture

Mathura School of Art (50 BC to 500 AD)

• The School was established at the holy city of Mathura between 1 and 3 AD. • Buddha’s first image can be traced to Kanishka’s reign (about 78 AD.). • They strongly built–right hand raised in protection and left hand on the waist. • The figures do not have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art. • It not only produced beautiful images of the Buddha but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. • Guptas adopted, further improvised and perfected Mathura School of Art. Observed at–Sarnath, Sravasti and even as far as Rajgir in Bihar.

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Palas–Bengal and Bihar (8th to 13th Centuries AD)

• The Pala Empire was a Buddhist dynasty in the control of Bengal from the 8th to the 12th century. • Nalanda was its most active centre, whose influence was spread to Nepal, Myanmar and even Indonesia. • During the Pala-period, a number of monasteries and religious sites that had been founded in earlier periods grew into prominence. • The large cruciform stupa at Paharpur (ancient Somapura) in Bengal (now Bangladesh), for example, measures more than one hundred meters from North to South. • It was built around the late eighth or early ninth century. Amravati School of Art • The walls of the courtyard contain 177 (200 BC to 200 AD) individual cells that served as shrines. • The school was established on the banks of the Krishna River in modern Andhra Chandelas–Bundelkhand Pradesh. (10th-11th Century AD) • Largest Buddhist stupa of South India. • Khajuraho justly famous for its graceful • Construction began in 200 BC and was contours and to erotic sculptures. completed in 200 AD. • These 22 temples (out of the original 85) • Stupendous stupa could not withstand the are regarded as one of the world’s greatest ravages of time. artistic wonders. • Its ruins are preserved in the London Museum. • Khajuraho Temples were built within a short period of hundred years from Temple Architecture of India 950 to 1050 AD. • Kendriya Mahadev temple is the largest and Nagara Style–North India most beautiful of the Khajuraho Temples. Nagara temples have two distinct features: • Shiva Temple at Visvanath and Vishnu • In plan, the temple is a square with a number Temple at Chaturbhuj are other important of graduated projections in the middle of temples at Khajuraho. each side giving a cruciform shape with a number of re-entrant angles on each side. • In elevation, a Sikhara, i.e., tower gradually inclines inwards in a convex curve.

Pratiharas–Ujjain (8th to 9th Centuries AD)

• Mahakaleshwar temple is known as one of the 12 Jyotirlingas of India. • Kal Bhairava temple, finds a mention in the Skanda Purana, and Mangalnath temple, regarded as the birthplace of Mars, according to the Matsya Purana.

Dravidian Style–South India

Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following parts: • The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or Vimanam). It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one or more stories. It contains the cell where the image of the god is placed. • The porches or Mandapas, which always cover and precede the door leading to the cell.

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• Gate-pyramids or Gopurams, which are • The nobility, serenity and grace of Buddha the principal features in the quadrangular are visible in the Buddhist caves of Ellora. enclosures that surround the more notable • Ellora caves also contain images of temples. Vishwa­karma, the patron saint of Indian • Pillared halls or Chaultris–properly craftsmen. Chawadis–used for various purposes, and • The Kailasha temple in Cave 16 is indeed an which are the invariable accompaniments architectural wonder, the entire structure of these temples. having been carved out of a monolith.

Vesara Style–Deccan

Bhimbetaka Caves

• Vesara is a combination of NAGARA & • Bhimbetaka caves are located in the Raisen DRAVIDIAN temple styles. District, Madhya Pradesh. • Hoysala temples at Belur, Halebidu and • It was discovered in 1958 by V.S. Wakanker. Somnathpura are supreme examples • It is the biggest prehistoric art depository in of this style. India. • Atop the hill, a large number of rock-shelters Cave Architecture of India have been discovered, of which more than 130 contain paintings. • Excavations revealed history of continuous Ajanta Caves (2nd Century BC to habitation from early stone age (about th 7 Century AD) 10,000 years) to the end of stone age • The Ajanta caves depict the story of (c. 10,000 to 2,000 years). Buddhism, spanning the period from 200 BC

to 650 AD. • The caves at Ajanta served as secluded retreats to the Buddhist monks. • Beautiful wall frescos and sculptures speak volumes of the advancement of Indian art in the ancient period. • Some of the caves at Ajanta house panels depicting stories from the Jatakas, stories about several incarnations of the Buddha. • Cave number one contains wall frescos that include two great Bodhisattvas, Padmapani and Avalokiteshvara. Other wonderful paintings in Ajanta are the flying apsara, dying princess and Buddha in preaching mode.

Ellora Caves (5th-13th Century AD)

• At Ellora, the caves are 34 in number. • The Ellora caves are carved into the sides of a basaltic hill. • The caves at Ellora contain some of the finest specimens of cave-temple architecture and exquisitely adorned interiors. • Structures in the Ellora caves represent the three faiths of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and were carved during 350 AD to 700 AD.

Elephanta Caves

• During 6th century, Shiva temple in the Elephanta caves is one of the most exquisitely carved temples in India. • Central attraction here is a twenty-feet high bust of the deity in three-headed form. • The Maheshamurti is built deep into a recess and looms up from the darkness to fill the full height of the cave. • Aghori is the aggressive form of Shiva where he is intent on destruction. • Mahayogi posture symbolises the meditative aspect of the God. • Ardhanarishvara depicts Lord Shiva as halfman/half-woman signifying the essential unity of the sexes.

Mahakali Caves

• Rock-cut Buddhist caves situated in Udayagiri hills, Mumbai. • They were excavated during 200 BC to 600 AD and are now in ruins. • These comprise of 4 caves on the southeastern face and 15 caves on the northwestern face. • Cave 9 is the chief cave and is the oldest and consists of a stupa and figures of Lord Buddha.

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early 18th century, others being Ujjain, Jogeshwar and Kanheri Caves Mathura, Varanasi and New Delhi. • The second largest known cave after the Kailasa cave in Ellora. • It was excavated between the 1st and 2nd Delhi Style of Architecture centuries AD. • The Delhi or the Imperial Style of Indo• Kanheri is a 109–cave complex located near Islamic architecture flourished between Borivili National Park in Mumbai. 1191 and 1557 AD and covered Muslim • The Kanheri caves contain illustrations from dynasties, viz., Slave (1191–1290), Khilji Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism and (1290–1320), Tughlaq (1320–1414), Sayyid show carvings dating back to 200 BC. (1414–1444) and Lodi (1451‑1556). • The earliest construction work was begun Karla and Bhaja Caves by Qutubuddin Aibak, who started erecting • Karla and Bhaja caves are situated about monumental buildings of stone on Qila Rai 50–60 kms away from Pune. Pithora, the first of the seven historical cities • These are rock-cut Buddhist caves dating of Delhi associated with Prithviraj Chauhan. back to the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. • These consist of several viharas and chaityas. • The Qutub Mosque (1192 AD) is one such building, whose arcaded aisles were Rajput Architecture composed of pillars carved in the Hindu style. Named as the Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid, • Rajput palaces–built as inner citadels it is considered as the earliest mosque surrounded by the city and enclosed by a in India. fortified wall as at Chittorgarh and Jaisalmer. • Man Mandir, the largest palace in Gwalior, • Qutub-ud-din Aibak also started the con­ struction of Qutub Minar in 1192 (which was was built by Raja Man Singh Tomar eventually completed by Iltutmish in 1230). (1486–1516). The Qutub Minar, built to commemorate • Some forts, such as those at Bharatpur and the entry of Islam, was essentially a victory Deeg, were protected by wide ditch filled with tower, decorated with several calligraphic water surrounding the fort. inscriptions. • Palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota represent the maturity of • Adhai-din-ka-Jhopra was located beyond the Ajmer dargah in Rajasthan. It was the Rajput style. constructed in 1153 AD and converted into • City of Bikaner is encircled by 5.63–km-long a mosque in 1198 AD. stone wall in rich pink sandstone. There are • Allauddin Khilji established the second city five gates and three sally ports. of Delhi at Siri, built the Alai Darwaza near • Jodhpur Fort dominates the city, which the Qutub Minar and dug a vast reservoir is surrounded by a huge wall with 101 at Hauz Khas around 1311 AD. bastions, nearly 9.5 km long. • Meherangarh fort stands on a cliff with a • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320–1325 AD) sheer drop of over 36 metres. built Tughlaqabad, the third city of Delhi. • Built by Jai Singh, Jaipur represents a Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, built of fusion of Eastern and Western ideas of red sandstone, is an irregular pentagon town planning. in its exterior plan and its design is of the • In Jaipur Hawa Mahal, or Palace of Winds pointed or ‘Tartar’ shape and is crowned by (1799) has a five-storeyed symmetrical a finial resembling the kalasa and amla of facade composed of 953 small casements in a Hindu temple. a huge curve each with a projecting balcony • Delhi’s fourth city Jahanpanah was built and crowning arch. by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq in mid-14th • J a n t a r M a n t a r , t h e l a r g e s t o f f i v e century. Firoz Shah Kotla ground is the observatories built by Jai Singh II in the only remnant of its past glory. He is also

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credited with founding the fortified cities of (1510), which is famous for its ‘shaking minarets’, Rani Rupmati Masjid at Mirzapur Jaunpur, Fatehabad and Hissar. (built between 1430 and 1440) and the • Kali Masjid, Khirki Masjid and Kalan Kankaria Lake, constructed in 1451 by Masjid also belong to this period, the last Sultan Qutub‑ud-Din. two being raised on a tahkhana or sub­ structure of arches. Deccan • The Tombs of Mubarak Sayyid (d. 1434 AD), Muhammad Sayyid (d. 1444 AD) and • Earliest period of architectural development started in 1347 when Allauddin Bahman Sikander Lodi (d. 1517 AD) are all of the Shah constructed the Gulbarga Fort and octagonal type. the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga. • The square tombs are represented by such • The second phase is represented by the monuments as the Bara Khan Ka Gumbad, architecture of Bidar initiated by Ahmed Chhota Khan Ka Gumbad, Bara Gumbad Shah (1422–1436), which includes the Bidar (1494 AD), Shish Gumbad, Dadi Ka Gumbad Fort, Mahmud Gawan’s Madrassa and the and the Poli ka Gumbad. Ali Barid’s Tomb. • The Tomb of Isa Khan (1547 AD), the Tomb of Adham Khan (1561 AD), Moth ki Masjid Hyderabad (c. 1505 AD), Jamala Masjid (1536 AD) • Qutub Shahi and Nizam Shahi dynasties and the Qila-i-Kuhna Masjid (c. 1550 AD) contributed greatly towards the development belong to the final phase of the Delhi style of the Deccan style of architecture. of architecture. • Charminar (1591) was built by Mohammed Quli Qutb Shah. Provincial Style of • Mecca Masjid: Started in 1614 by Abdullah Architecture Qutub Shah and completed in 1687 by Aurangzeb. • Golconda Fort (1525): By Mohammed Quli Jaunpur Qutub Shah, was an impregnable fort of great • Under the Sharqi dynasty, Jaunpur became strategic importance to most of the rulers. a great centre of art, culture and archi­ • Falaknuma Palace (1870): By Nawab Vikartectural activity. Ul-Ulmara, is a rare blend of Italian and • During the rule of Shamsuddin Ibrahim Tudor architecture. (1402–1436 AD), Atala Masjid was built in 1378.

Gujarat

• Gujarat witnessed significant architectural activity for over 250 years starting from Muzaffar Shah’s declaration of independence from Delhi and the formation of the Sultanate of Gujarat in 1307 AD until the conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in 1500 AD. • Ahmedabad is a city full of architectural masterpieces which include Sayyid Alam’s Mosque (1412), Teen Darwaza (1415), Tomb of Ahmed Shah (1440), Rani-kaHujra (1440), the Jami Masjid (built by the city’s founder Sultan Ahmed Shah in 1423), Qutubuddin’s Mosque (1454), Rani Sipri Mosque (1505), Sidi Bashir’s Mosque

Bijapur

• Gol Gumbaz built by Mohammad Adil Shah, which is the largest masonry dome in the world.

Kashmir

• In Kashmir architecture, we find the use of woodwork. • Log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines called ziarats. • Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami Masjid at Srinagar built by Sikandar Butshikan (1400 AD)–examples of the wooden architecture. • Fort of Hari Parbat, the Pattar Masjid (1623) and the Akhun Mulla Shah’s Mosque

Art and Culture

(1649) are illustrations of the art of stone building in Kashmir.

Mughal Style of Architecture Babur

• Babur built buildings at Dholpur, Gwalior, Sikri, etc. and mosques at Kabuli Bazar of Panipat, Sambhal and Agra. • Mosque at Kabuli Bagh of Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi, both constructed in 1526, are the surviving monuments of Babur.

Humayun and SherShah

• Humayun built mosques at Fatehabad in Hissar. Sher Shah built monuments, inns, miners and educational centres. His Purana Quila is a unique blend or Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Muslim School of Art. • Persian influence: Result of Humayun’s observance at the court of Shah Tahmasp during the period of his exile. • Humayun’s Tomb at Delhi (1564): By his widow Haji Begum as a mark of devotion, eight years after his death. Cultural Heritage Site

State

Mahabodhi Temple

Bihar

Red Fort

Delhi

Qutub Minar

Delhi

Humayun’s Tomb

Delhi

Champaner Acheological Park

Gujarat

Churches of Old Goa

Goa

Jantar Mantar

Jaipur

Hampi

Karnataka

Pattadakal

Karnataka

Ajanta Caves

Maharashtra

Ellora Caves

Maharashtra

Sanchi Stupa

Madhya Pradesh

Khajuraho

Madhya Pradesh

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

Madhya Pradesh

Elephanta Caves

Maharashtra

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Site

State

Konark Sun Temple

Odisha

Mahabalipuram

Tamil Nadu

Chola Temples

Tamil Nadu

Agra Fort

Uttar Pradesh

Taj Mahal

Uttar Pradesh

Akbar

• Akbar’s time saw a further improvement. A fusion of Indo-Persian style was seen in Humayun’s Tomb. • In Agra Fort, importance was given to Gujarat and Bengal Architectural School. • Fatehpur Sikri, the greatest creation of Akbar houses Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Panch Mahal, Jodhabai’s Palace, Birbal’s Palace, Buland Darwaja and the Tomb of Salim Chisti outside the enclosure. • Massive sandstone ramparts of the Red Fort, New Delhi.

Jehangir

• Jehangir devoted more time to miniature painting and his architectural contributions are poorer than that of Akbar. • Itimad-ud-Daula’s tomb at Agra was made by him. • Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Lake Dal in Kashmir was built by Jehangir. • Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, was completed in 1613. • Jehangir’s Tomb at Shadera near Lahore, was built by his wife Nur Mahal.

Shahjahan

• The Mughal architecture in Shahjahan’s time reached its final glory. Shahjahan replaced Akbar’s red stone structures in Agra and Lahore and rebuilt them in white marble. His additions were seen in Diwan-i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Seesh Mahal, Musamman Burj and Moti Masjid. • The Red Fort built of red sandstone and marble has exquisite and vast gateways, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas. In the Diwan-i-Khas, where the emperor gave audience to the royal princess, nobles and other dignitaries had the gem studded Peacock Throne placed.

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• Jama Masjid at Delhi was one of the most elegant buildings of his time. Shahjahan has immortalized his name by building the Taj Mahal in the memory of his beloved queen Mumtaz Mahal. Aurangzeb, a staunch Sunni Muslim was averse to art and culture. His period was marked by decline in art and architecture.

Aurangzeb

• Bibi-ka-Maqbara, tomb of Aurangzeb’s wife Begum Rabia Durani, a poor replica of the famous Taj Mahal. • A fine example of Mughal architecture in the Deccan region.

Post-Mughal Style of Architecture Avadh (Oudh) Style

• Safdarjung’s tomb was built in honour of Safdarjung (1739–1753), who was the nephew of the first Nawab of Oudh. • Bara Imambara was built by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of pillars in the main hall and simplicity of style and symmetry are its unique features. • Kaiser Bagh is a quadrangular park with a baradari (pavilion) and yellow-coloured buildings on three sides.

Punjab Style

• It was developed under the influence of the Mughal style. • It is characterised by certain indigenous features like the multiplicity of chattris/ kiosks, use of fluted dome generally covered with copper or brass-gilt and enrichment of arches by numerous foliations. • Golden Temple at Amritsar (1764) built by the fourth Sikh Guru Ramdas.

Colonial Architecture Portuguese

• Portuguese adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque churches of Goa.

• Se Cathedral and Arch of Conception of Goa were built in the typical Portuguese-Gothic style. • St. Francis Church at Cochin (1510) is believed to be the first church built by the Europeans in India. • Fort of Castella de Aguanda near Mumbai and added fortifications to the Bassein Fort built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan of Gujarat, in 1532 AD. • Bassein Fort is famous for the Matriz (Cathedral of St. Joseph), the Corinthian pillared hall and the Porte da Mer (sea gate).

French

• French gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural patterns. • Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise De Sacre Coeur De Jesus), Eglise de Notre Dame de Angesand, Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.

British

• British followed various architectural styles–Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance and Victorian being the essentials. • Church of St. John at Calcutta (1787) inspired by St. Stephens Church at Walbrooks. • St. Mary’s Church in Fort St. George in Chennai. • Law Courts, Presidency College and Senate House of Chennai. • Victoria Memorial Hall, Calcutta (1921), designed by Sir William Emerson. • Gateway of India in Mumbai, Maharaja’s Palace at Mysore and M.S. University and Lakshmi Villas Palace at Baroda. • New Delhi–systematically planned city after being made capital in 1911. • Sir Edward Lutyens made responsible for the overall plan of Delhi and constructed India Gate and Rashtrapati Bhawan. • Herbert Baker added South Block and North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Art and Culture

• Englishman called Robert Tor Tussell built the Connaught Place.

Paintings of India Wall paintings of India

Painting expresses human thoughts and feelings through the media of line and colour.

Methods of Painting True Fresco Method The paintings are done when the surface wall is still wet so that the pigments go deep inside the wall surface. Tempora or Fresco-Secco Method of painting on the lime-plastered surface which has been allowed to dry first and then drenched with fresh lime water.

Cave Painting

• Cave paintings of India date back to the prehistoric times. • The finest examples of these paintings comprise of the murals of Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh, Sittanavasal, etc., which reflect an emphasis on naturalism. • Ancient cave paintings of India serve as a window to our ancestors, who used to inhabit these caves.

Miniature Paintings

• Miniature paintings are beautiful handmade paintings, which are quite colourful but small in size. • The highlight of these paintings is the intricate and delicate brushwork, which lends them a unique identity.

Mughal Painting

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Madhubani Painting

• Madhubani painting originated in a small village, known as Maithili, of the Bihar state of India. • Initially, the womenfolk of the village drew the paintings on the walls of their home, as an illustration of their thoughts, hopes and dreams. • With time, the paintings started becoming a part of festivities and special events, like marriage.

Rajput Painting

• Rajput painting originated in the royal states of Rajasthan, somewhere around the late 16th and early 17th century. • The Mughals ruled almost all the princely states of Rajasthan at that time and because of this, most of the schools of Rajput Painting in India reflect strong Mughal influence.

Pahari Painting

• Pahari painting is the name given to Rajput paintings, made in the Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir states of India. • These paintings developed as well as flourished during the period of 17th to 19th century. Indian Pahadi paintings have been done mostly in miniature forms.

Mysore Painting

• Mysore painting is a form of classical South Indian painting, which evolved in the Mysore city of Karnataka. • During that time, Mysore was under the reign of the Wodeyars and it was under their patronage that this school of painting reached its zenith.

Tanjore Painting

• Tanjore painting is one of the most popular • Mughal painting reflects an exclusive forms of classical South Indian painting. combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic • It is the native art form of Thanjavur (also styles. known as Tanjore) city of Tamil Nadu. • As the name suggests, these paintings • The dense composition, surface richness evolved as well as developed during the rule and vibrant colours of Indian Thanjavur of Mughal Emperors in India, between 16th paintings distinguish them from the other century and 19th century. types of paintings.

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Kangra Painting

• This style orginated in Guler state, in the first half of the 18th century and reached its zenith during the reign of Maharaja Sansar Chand Katoch.

Classical Dance of India 1. Bharatnatyam—Tamil Nadu

• The Bharatnatyam dance flourished in the Hindu temples of South India. • The temple dancers (called Devadasis or servants of god) flourished under royal patronage and religious devotion. • The Devadasi system became an integral part of South Indian temple ritual. Slowly and gradually, the Devadasi system went into disrepute due to economic and social conditions attached to it. • In Bharatnatyam dance, one dancer takes on many roles in a single performance. • As a solo dance, Bharatnatyam leans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance– the nritya, where the dancer expresses the sahitya through movement and mime. • Bharatnatyam performance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music.

2. Kathak—Uttar Pradesh

• Kathak is one of the most important classical dances of India. • Kathak is said to be derived from the word ‘katha’, meaning ‘the art of storytelling’. • The Kathak dance form originated in north India and was very similar to the Bharatnatyam dance form. • In ancient India, there were Kathakars or bards who used to recite religious and mythological tales to the accompaniment music, mime and dance. • It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime and gestures were perhaps added later on to make the recitation more effective. • Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century and the resultant bhakti movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms.

3. Kuchipudi—Andhra Pradesh

• Kuchipudi derives its name from the Kuchipudi village of Andhra Pradesh. • Kuchipudi exhibits scenes from the Hindu Epics, legends and mythological tales through a combination of music, dance and acting. • Like other classical dances, Kuchipudi also comprises pure dance, mime and histrionics but it is the use of speech that distinguishes Kuchipudi’s presentation as dance-drama. • ‘At times, even though the dramatic situation did not demand, solo dancing was being presented to punctuate the presentation and to enhance the appeal. One such number is tarangam inspired by the Krishna-leela tarangini of Teerthanarayana Yogi. • There are now two forms of Kuchipudi –the traditional musical dance-drama and the solo dance.

4. Kathakali—Kerala

• The word ‘Kathakali’ literally means ‘Story-Play’. • Kathakali is known for its heavy, elaborate makeup and costumes. • In fact, the colourful and fascinating costumes of Kathakali have become the most recognised icon of Kerala. • Kathakali is considered as one of the most magnificent theatres of imagination and creativity. Kathakali dance presents themes derived from the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and other Hindu epics, mythologies and legends. • Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the ritualperforming arts of Kerala, which have had a direct influence on Kathakali in its form and technique. • The face of the artist is painted over to appear as though a mask is worn.

5. Odissi—Odisha

• Odissi is one of the famous classical Indian dances from the Odisha state. • The state of Odisha has a great cultural history. • The rulers of this region built magnificent temples, which became the centre of art and culture.

Art and Culture

• It was around these temples that Odissi, one of India’s scintillating dance-forms was born, nurtured and nourished. • The maharis, who were originally temple dancers, came to be employed in royal courts, which resulted in the degeneration of the art form. Around this time, a class of boys called gotipuas were trained in the art. They danced in the temples and also for general entertainment. Many of today’s gurus of this style belong to the gotipua tradition. • Facial expressions, hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or one of the nine rasas.

6. Sattriya—Assam

• The Sattriya dance of Assam is a classical form of dance, which is highly devotional in character with the spiritual aspect being predominant. • The word ‘Sattriya’ is derived from ‘Sattra’ which means ‘monastery’. Since the dance developed and grew within the Satras, it is named after these religious institutions. Specifically, it emerges from a 500–year-old comprehensive theatre tradition nurtured in the Vaishnav Monasteries of Assam. • There were two dance forms prevalent in Assam before the neo-Vaishnava movement, such as Ojapali and Devadasi with many classical elements. • As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number of rhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clear indication of the influence of the former on the latter. • Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid-down principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music, etc.

7. Manipuri—Manipur

• Manipuri is one of the six major classical dances of India. • Manipuri dance is indigenous to Manipur, the north-eastern state of India. • The Manipuri dance style is inextricably woven into the life-pattern of Manipuri people.

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• The most striking part of Manipur dance is its colorful decoration, lightness of dancing foot, delicacy of abhinaya (drama), lilting music and poetic charm. • The Manipuri dance form is mostly ritualistic and draws heavily from the rich culture of the state of Manipur. • Costumes used in the Manipur dance are colourful and the music carries a quaint charm.

8. Mohiniattam—Kerala

• Mohiniattam is a classical dance form of Kerala. Mohiniattam is derived from the words ‘Mohini’ (meaning ‘a beautiful woman’) and ‘attam’ (meaning ‘dance’). • Thus, Mohiniattam dance form is a beautiful feminine style with surging flow of body movements. • Mohiniattam dance in Kerala developed in the tradition of Devadasi system, which later grew and developed a classical status. • Mohiniattam is a solo female dance (in a single costume), where musical melody and the rhythmical swaying of the dancer from side to side and the smooth and unbroken flow of the body movement is the striking feature. • The Mohiniattam dance focusses mainly on feminine moods and emotions. Various Indian States’ Dance Forms State

Name of the dance

Andhra Pradesh

Kuchipudi, Kolattam, Dhimsa, Veeranatyam

Arunachal Pradesh

Bardo Chham

Assam

Bihu, Jumar, Bagurumba, Ali Ai Ligang

Bihar

Paika, Kajari, Bidesia, Jhijhian

Chhattisgarh

Panthi, Raut Nacha

Gujarat

Raas, Tippani, Padhar, Garba

Haryana

Dhamal, Daph, Phag, Ghoomar, Jhumar, Loor

Himachal Pradesh

Kinnauri Nati, Namgen

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State

Name of the dance

State

Name of the dance

Jharkhand

Karma

Uttarakhand

Jammu and Kashmir

Kud, Dumhal, Rouf, Bhand Pather, Bachha Nagma, Hafiza Dance, Bhand Jashan, WuegiNachun

Barada Nati, Botiya, Cancheri, Chhapelia, Choliya, Jagars, Jhora, Romala

Goa

Dekhnni, Fugdi, Corridinho, Dashavatara

Karnataka

Yakshagna, Bayalata, Dollu Kunitha, Veeragaase dance

Meghalaya

Nongkrem, Shad Suk mynsiem, Behdienkhalm, Lahoo

Kerala

Mohiniattam, Kathakali, Padayani

West Bengal

Gambhira, Kalikapatadi, Nanci, Alkap, Domni

Madhya Pradesh

Tertali, Charkula, Jawara, Matki dance, Phulpati dance, Maanch, Gaur Maria, Grida

Maharashtra

Pavri Nach, Lavani, Dangi, Koli

Puppet Dances Assam

Pudda Nach

Bihar

Yampuri

Karnataka

Gombeyatta

Kerala

Talpavakootu; Pava Kathakali

Manipur

Thang Ta, Dhol Cholom

Mizoram

Cheraw Dance

Maharashtra

Malasutri Bahuly

Nagaland

Chang Lo or Sua Lua

Odisha

Odisha

Ghumura, Chau, Goti Pua, Nacni, Odissi, Dhap, Dalkhai, Baag Naach

Sakhi Kundhei; Kundeinachchha; Kathikundhei; Ravanchhaya

Rajasthan

Kathaputli

Punjab

Bhangra, Jhumar, Karthi, Kikkli, Malwai Giddha, Sammi, Jindua

West Bengal

Putul Nacch

Rajasthan

Ghoomar, Kalbelia, Bhavai, Chirami, Gair, Tera Tali

Kerala

Kalaripayattu; Parichakali

Manipur

Thag Ta

Sikkim

Singh Chaam

Odisha

Pika

Tamil Nadu

Bharata Natyam, Devarattam, Kamandi, Kummi, Karagattam, Mayil Attam, Paampu attam, Oyilattam

Punjab

Gatka

Sikkim

Pang Lhabosol

Uttarakhand

Choliya

Telangana

Perini Thandavam, Lambadi, Dappu, Tappeta Gullu, Burra Katha, Pagati Vesham

Tripura

Hojagiri

Uttar Pradesh

Charkula, Kathak, Karma, Dadra

Martial Dances

List of Indian Musical Instruments Wind Instruments Harmonium: Harmonium usually belongs to the family of free-reed aerophones. The instrument is a small, tabletop size organ which

Art and Culture

has bellows at the back that is pumped by one hand while the other hand plays the keyboard. Shehnai: Shehnai the wind instrument is believed to have been introduced in India by the Muslims. Shehnai is the predominant double-reed wind instrument used in North Indian music. Bansuri: Bansuri is basically a folk instrument, invariably linked to the lives and playfulnesses of Krishna. However, it was during the Bhakti movement that Bansuri raised to prominence.

Percussion Instruments

Dholak: Dholak is a very popular folk drum of northern India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as well. It is barrel shaped, at times a cylindrical drum, with skins on both sides. Dumroo: Dumroo is probably the oldest and traditional form of percussion instrument in India. Dumroo is the only remaining form of hour-glass drums which are seen in ancient Indian statues. Ghatam: Ghatam replicates or conveys the meaning of the pot in Sanskrit. It is an ancient percussion instrument and ancient like other musical instruments mridangam, veena, etc. Ghungroos: Ghungroos are very famous Musical Instrument in India. Ghungroos are usually the small brass bells. It is a musical accessory used by performers of all classical dances. Kanjeera: The Kanjeera is a very old and traditional instrument which is very popular in South Indian classical performances. Kanjeera is secondary percussion which is played as an accompaniment with the mridangam. Kartal: Kartal literally means rhythm of the hand which is made of wooden blocks with holes for the fingers and circular copper plates, pairs of Kartals are played with both hands. Khol: Khol is usually used traditionally for accompanying Bhajans and Kirtans. Its high skin is relatively small with a diameter of about 9–10 cm, which gives it a particularly high, piercing sound.

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Manjeera: Manjeera is basically a set of small cymbals and is a ubiquitous component of dance, music and bhajans. It is a very ancient instrument seen on ancient temple walls. Manjeera is the most inexpensive and easy to play Instrument. Mridangam: The Indian Musical Instrument Mridangam is one of the most popular classical instruments of South India. Mridangam accompanies vocal, instrumental and dance performances. Pakhawaj: The Pakhawaj in India is also called Mardal, Pakhawaj, Pakuaj, Pakhvaj, Pakavaj or Mardala, as it is a barrel-shaped, two-headed drum. Tabla: Tabla is the most popular pair of drums in the Indian Sub-continent. Tabla is a pair of drums which consists of a small right hand drum called Dayan and a larger metal one called bayan.

String Instruments

Sarangi: Sarangi has a hollow body and made of teak wood adorned with ivory inlays. It consisits of forty strings of which thirty seven are sympathetic. Sarod: Sarod is a popular Indian classical musical instrument which is similar to the Western lute in structure. Among the followers and connoisseurs of Hindustani classical music Sarod is one of the most important musical instruments. Sitar: Sitar is one of the most popular Indian classical instruments and it comes under the category of a chordophone in the lute family. Sitar has neck crafted from toon or teakwood and a resonator carved from a large seasoned gourd. Tanpura: Tanpura in India is a drone instrument that accompanies Dhrupad singing and is the most fundamental of all instruments of Indian Classical Music. Veena: Veena the traditional instrument of India is also known as Saraswati Veena which is a musical instrument of South India. Veena is a classical instrument basically plucked stringed instrument that is used to accompany Carnatic music.

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Musical Instruments and Instrumentalists Instruments

Instrumentalists

Stringed Instruments Rudra Veena

Asad Ali Khan, Zia Moin-ud-din Dagar

Santoor

Shiv Kumar Sharma

Sarangi

Ustad Binda Khan

Sarod

Buddhadev Dasgupta, Ali Akbar Khan, Amjad Ali Khan, Bahadur Khan, Sharan Rani

Surb Ahar

Sajjad Hussain, Annapurna

Veena

Doraiswamy Iyengar, Chittibabu Emani, Sankara Shastri, Dhanammal S. Bala Chandran

Sitar

Ravi Shankar, Nikhil, Banerjee, Vilayat Khan, Mustaq Annapurna

Violin

Ganjan Rao Joshi, Ms.Gopal Krishanan, T. N. Krishnan, Baluswamy, Dikshitar Dwaran Venkataswamy

Wind Instruments Flute

T. R. Mahalingam, N. Ramani, Hari Parsad Chaurasia, Pannalal Ghosh

Nadaswaran

Sheikh Chinna Moola, Neeruswamy Pillai, Rajaratnam Pillai

Shehnai

Bismillah Khan

Percussion (Striking/thumping) Instruments Mridangam

(Palaghat Mani Iyer, Karakudi R Mani, Palaghat Raghu

Pakhawag

Pt. Ayodhya Prasad, Gopal Das, Babu Ram Shankar

Tabla

Zakir Hussain, Nikhil Ghosh, Kishan Maharaj, Alla Rakha Khan, Pandit Santa Prasad, Kumar Bose, Latif Khan

Music The two distinct styles, Hindustani and Carnatic, came into vogue after the advent of the Muslims, particularly during the reign of the Mughal Emperors of Delhi. Both the

systems of music received their nourishment from the same original source. Whereas the Indian music of the Northern part of India assimilated some features of the music of the Persian and Arabic musicians, who adorned the courts of the Mughal rulers of Delhi, the music of the South continued to develop along its own original lines.

Hindustani Music

There are 10 main forms of styles of singing and compositions: Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal, Tappa, Chaturang, Ragasagar, Tarana, Sargam and Thumri. Nowadays, Ghazals have become very popular as the ‘light classical’ form of music. Dhrupad Dhrupad is the oldest and perhaps the grandest form of Hindustani vocal music. Dhrupad is essentially a poetic form incorporated into an extended presentation style marked by precise and orderly elaboration of a raga. The exposition preceding the composed verses is called alap, and is usually the longest portion of the performance. Dhrupad is in decline since the 18th century. Khayal Khayal literally means ‘a stray thought’, ‘a lyric’ and ‘an imagination’. This is the most prominent genre of Hindustani vocal music depicting a romantic style of singing. Khayal is dependent to a large extent on the imagination of the performer and the improvisations he is able to incorporate. A Khayal is also composed in a particular raga and tala and has a brief text. The Khayal texts range from praise of kings or seasons, description of seasons to the pranks of Lord Krishna, divine love and sorrow of separation. There are six main gharanas in khayal: Delhi, Patiala, Agra, Gwalior, Kirana and Atrauli–Jaipur. Gwalior Gharana is the oldest and is also considered the mother of all other gharanas.

Art and Culture

Thumri Thumri originated in the Eastern part of Uttar Pradesh, mainly in Lucknow and Benares, around the 18th century AD. It is believed to have been influenced by hori, kajri and dadra. Thumri is supposed to be a romantic and erotic style of singing and is also called ‘the lyric of Indian classical music’. The song compositions are mostly of love, separation and devotion. Its most distinctive feature is the erotic subject matter picturesquely portraying the various episodes from the lives of Lord Krishna and Radha. Thumri is usually performed as the last item of a Khayal concert. There are three main gharanas of thumri–Benares, Lucknow and Patiala. Dadra Dadra bears a close resemblance to Thumri. The texts are as amorous as those of Thumris. The major difference is that dadras have more than one antara and are in dadra tala. Singers usually sing a dadra after a thumri. Dhamar-Hori These compositions are similar to Dhrupad but are chiefly associated with the festival of Holi. Here the compositions are specifically in praise of Lord Krishna. This music, sung in the dhamar tala, is chiefly used in festivals like Janmashthami, Ramnavami and Holi. The compositions here describe the spring season. These compositions are mainly based on the love pranks of Radha-Krishna. Tappa The tappa is said to have developed in the late 18th century AD from the folk songs of camel drivers. Tappa literally means ‘jump’ in Persian. They are essentially folklore of love and passion and are written in Punjabi. Ragasagar Ragasagar consists of different parts of musical passages in different ragas as one song composition. These compositions have 8 to 12 different ragas and the lyrics indicate

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the change of the ragas. The peculiarity of this style depends on how smoothly the musical passages change along with the change of ragas. Tarana Tarana is a style consisting of peculiar syllables woven into rhythmical patterns as a song. It is usually sung in faster tempo. Chaturang Chaturang denotes four colours or a composition of a song in four parts: Fast Khayal, Tarana, Sargam and a ‘Paran’ of Tabla or Pakhawaj. Ghazal The ghazal is mainly a poetic form than a musical form, but it is more song-like than the thumri. The ghazal is described as the ‘pride of Urdu poetry’. The ghazal originated in Iran in the 10th century AD. The ghazal never exceeds 12 shers (couplets) and, on an average, ghazals usually have about 7 shers. The ghazal found an opportunity to grow and develop in India around 12th century AD, when the Mughal influences came to India, and Persian gave way to Urdu as the language of poetry and literature. It developed and evolved in the courts of Golconda and Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim rulers. The 18th and 19th centuries are regarded as the golden period of the ghazal with Delhi and Lucknow being its main centres.

Carnatic Music

The Tamil classic of the 2nd century AD. titled ‘Silappadhikaram’ contains a vivid description of the music of that period. The Tolkappiyam, Kalladam and the contributions of the Saivite and Vaishnavite saints of the 7th and 8th centuries AD. also serve as resource material for studying musical history. It is said that South Indian Music, as known today, flourished in Deogiri, the capital city of the Yadavas in the middle ages, and that after the invasion and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural

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life of the city took shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign of Krishnadevaraya. Thereafter, the music of South India came to be known as Carnatic Music. In the field of practical music, South India had a succession of brilliant and prolific composers who enriched the art with thousands of compositions. After Purandaradasa, Tallapakam Annamacharya Narayana Tirtha, Bhadrachalam Ramdasa and Kshetranja made contributions to the welth of compositions. The birth of the Musical Trinity–Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Syama Sastri– at Tiruvarur between the years 1750 and 1850 AD. ushered in an era of dynamic development in Carnatic music. The outstanding feature of Carnatic music is its raga system and highly developed and intricate tala system. Though clearcut demarcations in the style of musical presentation, similar to the gharanas of Hindustani music, are not seen in Carnatic music, yet we do come across different styles in rendering compositions. The ancient musical forms like Prabandhas, etc. gradually gave way to the different musicals forms that are in use in the presentday music, though the basic elements of the ancient Prabandhas are still retained in the modern forms. The following musical forms offer interesting study: Gitam Gitam is the simplest type of composition. Taught to beginners of music, the gitam is very simple in construction, with an easy and melodious flow of music. Suladi Very much like the gitam in musical structure and arrangement, the Suladis are of a higher standard than the gitam. Varnam The Varnam is a beautiful creation of musical craftsmanship of a high order, combining in

itself all the characteristic features of the raga in which it is composed. Practice in Varnam singing helps a musician to attain mastery in presentation and command over raga, tala and bhava. Svarajati This is learnt after a course in gitams. More complicated than the gitas, the Svarajati paves the way for the learning of the Varnams. The theme is either devotional, heroic or amorous. Jatisvaram Very similar to the svarajati in musical structure, this form–Jatisvaram–has no sahitya or words. The piece is sung with solfa syllables only. Kirtanam The Kirtanam had its birth about the latter half of the 14th century. It is valued for the devotional content of the sahitya. Clothed in simple music, the kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava. It is suited for congregational singing as well as individual presentation. Kriti The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. It is a highly evolved musical form. The highest limit of aesthetic excellence is reached in the Kriti composition. The raga bhava is brought out in all the rich and varied colours in this form. Pada Padas are scholarly compositions in Telugu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance forms, they are also sung in concerts, on account of their musical excellence and aesthetic appeal. The music is slow-moving and dignified. Javali A javali is a composition belonging to the sphere of light classical music. Sung both in concert programmes and dance concerts, the javalis are popular because of the attractive melodies in which they are composed. In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis are songs which are sensuous in concept and spirit.

Art and Culture

Tillana The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is mainly a dance form, but on account of its brisk and attractive music, it sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece. Pallavi This is the most important branch of creative music. It is in this branch of manodharma sangeeta that the musician has ample opportunities of displaying his or her creative talents, imaginative skill, and musical intelligence. Tanam This is a branch of raga alapana. It is raga alapana in Madhyamakala or medium speed. There is perceptible rhythm in this. The rhythmical flow of music, flowing in fascinating patterns, makes tanam singing the most captivating part of raga exposition.

Ragas, Timing and Moods 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Bhairava – Dawn – Awe and Fear Kaushika – Night – Joy Hindola – Night – Laughter Dipak – Afternoon – Love Megh – Morning – Calm Sriraga – Evening – Peace

Gharana and their founders

• Gwalior Gharana–Nathan Pir Baksh, Nathu Khan • Agra Gharana–Ghagghe Khudabaksh • Kirana Gharana–Nayak Gopal • Bhendi Bazzar Gharana–Chhajju Khan, Nazeer Khan, Khadim Hussain Khan • Jaipur Atrauli Gharana–Alladiya Khan • Patiala Bada Fateh Gharana–Ali Khan, Ali Baksha Khan • Rampur–Inayat • Sahaswan Gharana–Hussain Khan • Indore Gharana–Amir Khan • Jodhpur Mewali Gharana–Nazir Khan • Sham Chaurasia Gharana–Miyan Chand Khan, Miyan Suraj Khan

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Puppetry Puppetry is an art ancient to India. Before other modes of entertainment were developed, they were the ones popular among all, rich and poor alike, and a major part of the village folk culture. Even Mahabharata refers to the art of puppetry and shadow theatre. When the princess Uttara and her friends urged Arjuna to bring back (after his campaign against Kaurava clan) the fine, gaily coloured, delicate and soft garments for their dolls, the allusion was to puppets. Here we present you some interesting facts about puppetry in India:

Glove Puppets

Glove puppets, also known as hand puppets, are one of the most recognisable styles of puppets. The puppeteer inserts his hand through the bottom of the puppet and uses his index finger to move the head and his thumb and smallest finger or middle finger to move the hands of the puppet. In India, they are most common in areas like Kerala and West Bengal.

Rod Puppets

Rod puppets are manipulated by having a main rod run through the body of the puppet to keep it upright, and two rods inserted into the arms of the puppet’s body which are then moved by the puppeteer. This style of puppet is limiting in the puppet’s movement. They are extremely common in the eastern regions, Bengal and Odisha, and are known by the name Putul Naach.

Shadow Puppets or Shadow Theatre

Perhaps the most primitive type of puppets, shadow puppets consist of a desired shape cut out, then held between a light and a canvas screen, with the intent to cast the shadow of the puppet onto the canvas screen. Through manipulation of the puppet by a perpendicular rod adhered to the back and various lights, the illusion of movement is achieved. Shadow theatre is still common

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in some parts, like Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.

Indira Gandhi National Human Museum

Bhopal

String Puppets

Kala Chitra Foundation

Chennai

The string puppet, or ‘marionette’, is the most difficult puppet to maneuver and master for a puppeteer and consists of a main body, with the arms, legs and head held up by strings attached to rods above the puppet. Through movement of these rods, a puppeteer may position and exercise the puppet however they choose. The string puppet may also be as large as a puppeteer can lift. They are the most common kind and most notable in western India, in states like Rajasthan and Gujarat.

Lalit Kala Academy (1954)

New Delhi

National Drama Vidyalaya (1959)

New Delhi

National Modern Art Technique (1954)

Kolkata

National Museum

New Delhi

National School of Drama

New Delhi

Nehru Memorial Museum and Library

New Delhi

Rama Krishan Mission Sanskrit Institute (1938)

Kolkata

Sahitya Academy (1954)

New Delhi

Characters and Decoration

Sangeet Natak Academy

New Delhi

Allahabad Museum

Allahabad

Victoria Memorial Hall

Kolkata

Salarganj Museum

Hyderabad

Rampur Raja Library

Rampur

Raja Rammohan Rai Library Foundation

Kolkata

Nav-Nalanda Mahabihar

Bihar

National Research Laboratory for Conservation of Cultural Heritage

Lucknow

National Library (1948)

Kolkata

National Science Museum Parishad

Kolkata

Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad Asian Studies Institute

Kolkata

Khudabaksh Oriental Public Library

Patna

Jawahar Lal Nehru Manipur Dance Academy (1954)

Imphal

Indira Gandhi National Art Centre

New Delhi

A puppet’s decorative features depend on the role it was made to play. A puppet with large eyes, and darker colours represents an evil or immoral character, while a puppet with lighter colours, brighter clothing, and a mustache represents the hero or royalty. Women are portrayed with their hair in braids or flowing, while the men wear their hair in a turban. Puppetry is an art which has remained popular for more than a thousand years. Even this day, puppet theatres are very sought after. That is why attempted to demystify it so the next time you witness one, you can appreciate it fully. Art and Culture Institution

Headquarters

Institute of National Museum History for Art Conservation and Science Museum

New Delhi

Asiatic Society

Kolkata

Indian National Archives

New Delhi

Central High Tibetean Educational Institute

Varanasi

Institute of Indian Diamond

Surat

Delhi Public Library

New Delhi

Cultural Institute and Training Centre (1979)

New Delhi

Central Secretariat Library (1981)

New Delhi

Gandhian Recollection and Philosophy Recollection

New Delhi

Central Buddha Education Institute

Leh

Indian Museum

Kolkata

Indian Anthropology Survey

Kolkata

Art and Culture

Important Places in India Ahichhatra: Originally Ahikshetra in Bareilly district of Uttar Pradesh was one of the capitals of the Panchals. Aihole: In Karnataka, contains chief sites of the Chalukya architecture. Ajanta Caves: Situated 66 miles north of Aurangabad in the Maharashtra State. These are rock-cut Buddhist caves, 29 in number. Amaravati: It is the legendary capital of Swarga. Arikamedu: It was a sea-port near Pondicherry in the Chila times. Ayodhya: It was the capital of Kosala and the Solar kings of ancient India. Badami (or Vatapi): In Karnataka, is wellknown for the Chalukyan sculpture founded in the cave temples here. The famous Malegitti Shivalaya temple is also situated here. Belur: In Karnataka, is famous for its elaborately sculptured Cheena Kesava temple of the Hoysala period. Bhubaneswar: Known for ancient temples, viz. Radharani Lingaraj and Brahmeshvara. Bodh Gaya: It is situated 6 miles south of Gaya in the Bihar state. It is famous as the place where Buddha got enlightenment. Chidambaram: A town 150 miles south of Chennai, known as Tillai in ancient times. It was once the capital of the Chola kingdom. It is known as an abide of Nataraja, the Dancing Shiva. Elephanta Caves: These are the rock-cut caves of the 7th and 8th centuries. Ellora Caves: About 15 miles north-west of Aurangabad in Maharashtra. There are about 34 caves excavated in the face of a hill. Fatehpur Sikri: Situated 23 miles away from Agra in Uttar Pradesh, it was the city established by Akbar in 1571 AD. The place contains a number of palaces, shrines and mosques. Halebid: 10 miles away from Belur in Karnataka, is well-known for its sculptured temples of the Hoysala period.

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Hampi: In the Montgomery district of Punjab, now in Pakistan, known for excavations carried out here showing signs of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Junagadh: In Gujarat state, it is one of the most ancient cities of India. Kalibangan: In Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan, where excavations brought to light the varied achievements of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Kannauj: Capital of Harshavardhana. Kanchipuram: Also called the ‘Golden City’, is known for the Kailashnath temple. Kanheri: is known for its Buddhist caves dating back to the 1st century AD. Kanyakubja, or modern Kannauj, is an ancient city. Kapilvastu is associated with Mahatma Buddha. Khajuraho: In Chhatarpur in Madhya Pradesh, is famous for its group of highly ornate medieval Hindu temples. Kusinagar: In the district of modern Deoria, is the place where Buddha died. Lothal: The excavation made here to represent the Indus Valley Civilization. Madurai: Popularly known as the ‘City of Festivals’, was the capital of the Pandyan kingdom till the 14th century. It is famous for the Minakshi temple. Mammalapuram (now Mahabalipuram): It is known for rock-cut temples, monolithic figures and the carvings of the 7th and 8th centuries AD. Mandu: In Madhya Pradesh, it is one of the largest medieval cities. Mithila: It was the home of the three scholar sages–Gargi, Maitrey and Kapila. It was the capital of Raja Janak’s territory. Mohenjodaro: In the Larkana district of Sindh (now in Pakistan), is the site of excavation revealing the Indus Valley Civilisation. Nalanda: In Bihar, it was the part of an ancient Buddhist University. Palitaana: In Saurashtra, is famous for its holy hill Shatrunijaya. It is the most sacred place for the Shwetambaras. Pandharpur: It is in the Sholapur district (Maharashtra).

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Prabhaspatan (or Somnath): In Gujarat state, it is the site of the famous Somnath temple, which was destroyed by Mahmud Ghazni. Pragjyotishpur: It was the capital of an ancient tribal kingdom in Kamarupa or modern Assam. Rajgir: It was the capital of Bimbisara in ancient times. Buddha preached at Rajgir and also did Mahavira. Sanchi: In Madhya Pradesh, is famous for the largest and the most well-preserved Buddhist stupa. Sarnath: Near Varanasi, is the place where Buddha delivered his first sermon after he became the ‘Enlightened One’. Srirangapatnam: In Karnataka, it was the ancient capital of Tipu Sultan. Somnathpuram: In Karnataka, is known for the Kesava temple of the Hoysala period. Sravanbelagola: In Karnataka, is famous for its Jain temples and the colossal statue of Gomateshwara (Bahubali), the tallest monolithic in the world.

Srirangam: It contains one of the largest temples in south India of the Vijayanagara period. Sringeri: In Karnataka, it is a place of pilgrimage, where the great philosopher Sankara founded one of the principal peethas (monasteries). Tamralipti: A flourishing sea-port in ancient India. Tanjore: It was the capital of Cholas. It is also known for the Brihadeshwara temple. Taxila: Ancient capital of Gandhara. Tirupati: In the Andhra Pradesh state, it is one of the holiest places in South India. Ujjain: It is known to be the seat of king Vikrama. It is one of the seven sacred cities, also known as Avanti. Mahakaleshwar temple here is known as a pilgrimage centre. Vaishali: It was the capital of the famous Vajji kingdom in ancient times. Vatapi: See Bandami. Vikramshila was a great Tantrik University established by King Dharampala in 810 AD. 

World History

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Ancient World Mesopotamian Civilisation

• Hammurabi (C. 2100 BC), the greatest Babylonian ruler united the whole of what is now called Iraq into a single kingdom. • Hittites, who came from Asia Minor (now Turkey) and destroyed the Babylonian Kingdom, were the first to make regular use of horses for war chariots and to make iron implements. • The potter’s wheel was perhaps first used in Mesopotamia. • The Sumerians were the first to evolve a proper writing. This system is called Cuneiform. • The Mesopotamian system of counting is known as sexagesimal. • In geometry the Mesopotamians had discovered what was later called the Pythagoras theorem. • Mesopotamians divided the whole day into 24 hours. They divided the sky into 12 parts, each assigned a name. This has come down to us as the 12 signs of zodiac or rashis as we call them in India.

Egyptian Civilisation

• Egypt is called the ‘Gift of the Nile’. • The Old Kingdom is also called the ‘Age of the pyramids’. • The Egyptian King was called the pharaoh. • The Egyptians were the worshipper of the nature and sun was their most important god. • The Egyptians believed that after death both the body and the soul be reunited with each other after body was buried. So Egyptians took great care in preserving the

• • • •

body of the dead. The body was embalmed in spice and then wrapped in strips of fine linen. Such a preserved body is called a mummy. The mummy was put in a wooden box and buried. The Pyramids and the Sphinx are the two specimens of Egyptian architectural excellence. The Pyramids were the tombs of Kings and they contained the mummies of these monarchs. The Sphinx is a mythological animal with the body of a lion and the head of a man. T h e E g y p t i a n s c r i p t w a s k n o w n a s hieroglyphic.

Champollion

• The Egyptians developed a decimal system of numeration. • The crowning achievement of the Egyptians was the solar calendar.

Chinese civilisation

• The earliest Chinese Civilization is the Shang Civilisation. • The Shang dynasty was overthrown by the Chou dynasty. • The Chinese script is a pictographic script. • T h e C h i n e s e c a l e n d a r – S o l a r - l u n a r calendar, was a combination of solar and lunar calendar. The Chinese were the first to calculate the length of the year as 365–1/4 days. • In 3rd Century BC, the Chin dynasty became important to keep out invaders from the north; he began construction of a wall known as the Great Wall. • The Han dynasty followed the Chin dynasty in 202 BC. The Chinese was the first

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• • • •

• • •

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civilisation in history to have a system of selecting public officials on the basis of education and competitive examination. Under the Hans silk was a principal item of export. The two major religions of ancient China are Taoism and Confucianism. Confucius was a contemporary of Mahavira and Buddha. Buddhism was brought into China by Indians during the Han rule. The Great Wall is a mighty monument to the building skill of ancient China. This wall, built of stone and earth to a height of 6 meters and extending over 2,400 kms. In the 1st century AD, Paper was invented in China. The water clock, abacus umbrella were invented by Chinese. In the 2nd century AD, Chinese invented a seismograph.

Iranian Civilisation

• In the middle of the 6th century BC, a powerful empire–Achaemenid Empire– arose in Iran (Persia). The founder of this empire was Cyrus with his capital at Pasaragadae. • He was succeeded by Darius I (522 BC486 BC). The empire reached its greatest extent under him and covered entire Iran, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Asia, and north-western India. He built a new capital at Persepolis. • Alexander dealt the empire a final blow during the reign of Darius III. • In the 3rd century AD, the Sassanid Empire was founded by Ardashir in 226 AD. • The Achaemenids had introduced the use of money–coins of gold and silver–on a large scale throughout the empire. • The main religion of the ancient was Zoroastrianism. This religion was founded by Zarathustra or Zoroaster (628 BC–551 BC) as the Greeks called him in 7th century BC. The teachings of Zarathustra are recorded in the Zend Avesta the holy book of Parsis. Both Judaism and Christianity were indebted to Zoroastrianism. • During the Achaemenid Empire the official language was Aramaic. The Sassanids

revived Old Persian and made it the official language of their empire. But then a new Script called pahlavi had also developed.

Greek Civilisation

• The main occupations are agriculture and herding. • The Battle of Marathon (490 BC): The Greek defeated the Iranian (Persian) King Darius I at Marathon near Athens. • The Peloponnesian War, between Sparta and Athens from 431 BC to 404 BC, ended in tragedy for Athens. • Philip of Macedonia conquered most of States in years following Athens’ defeat. • Then his son, Alexander set out at age of 20, to conquer the world. • As a result of Roman attacks almost the entire territory of the Greeks and their empire become a part Roman Empire.

Contributions of Greek Civilisation

• The Olympic Games were first held in 776 BC by the Greek in honour of God Zeus at mount Olympus (Olympia) in Greece. • It was the French Baron Pierre de Coubertin who (nearly over 1,500 years after the last ancient Olympics) revived these games in 1894 and the modern series of the Olympic Games started in 1896 at Athens and since then they are being held every fourth years. • Homer’s ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’ are among the best epics of the world. • The founder of Greek tragedy was Aeschylus, author of Prometheus Bound. • Greece produced some of the world’s earliest great historians, e.g., Herodotus (known as the father of History) Thucydides, Plutarch, etc. • The most famous philosophers of Greece were Socrates, Plato (disciple of Socrates and author of ‘Republic’) and Aristotle (disciple of Plato). • The Greek made many contributions to mathematics especially to geometry as is seen in the work of Euclid and Pythagoras. • In Medicine Hippocrates laid the foundation of modern medicine. He is known as the father of medicine.

World History

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• The temple of Athena the Parthenon is the best example of Greek architecture. Myron and Phidias are best known sculptors of ancient Greece. •

• •

• The Roman developed their own alphabet and the Latin language became the language of all educated people in Western Europe. • Lucretius, Cicero, Marcus Aurelius and Seneca were the famous Roman philosophers. Roman Civilisation • Horace (Odes) and Virgil (Aeneid) were the The centre of the Roman civilisation was famous Roman poets. Italy, the peninsula that projects in to the • Tacitus (Annals and Histories) was the famous Roman historian and Pliny, the Mediterranean Sea in the west of Greece. elder was another famous Roman historian. The city of Rome was founded about 1000 BC by Romulus in the district of Latium. • The Romans were the inventors of concrete and could firmly cement bricks and The language of the ancient Romans, Latin stones together. They also introduced to gets its name from Latium. architectural improvements–the arch and The early Romans had a king, an assembly cupolas or domes. and a senate. • Fights between gladiators or between a Towards the end of the 6th century BC gladiator and a wild animal were a popular the King was overthrown and a republic Roman amusement. was established. By the beginning of the 1st century BC, the Medieval world (500 AD-1500 AD) Romans had conquered Greece and Asia Minor and established a protectorate over Egypt. Medieval Europe Rivalry for power grew between two Generals • The Eastern Roman empire or Byzantine Pompey and Julius Caesar. War followed Empire was a vast empire and its capital, Constantinople was the largest city of that between them and Pompey was murdered time. by his enemies in Egypt. In 37 BC, Octavian became the most • The Ottoman Turks conquered the Byzantine territories in 1453 AD. powerful in the Roman Empire.

• The period of Roman history beginning with his rule up to 284 AD is called the principate. • In 284 AD, Diocletian became the ruler and from this time on, the Roman civilisation declined more rapidly. One of Diocletian successors, Constantine built a new capital called Constantinople on the site of ancient Byzantium in 330 AD. • The Romans worshipped as many gods and goddesses as the Greeks. Jupiter sent rain for the crops; Mars helped them in war; Mercury carried their messages; Neptune the god of sea; Vesta guarded the home; Juno protected their women.

Contributions of the Roman Civilisation

• Roman laws and principles of governance are Rome’s greatest contribution to the world.

Feudalism

• Feudalism originated in the 8th and 9th centuries. • First of all in Western Europe the feudal system developed.

Crusades (1095 AD-1291 AD)

• Crusades mean the military expeditions, under the banner of the cross organised in western Christendom primarily to recover the Holy places of Palestine from Muslim occupation. • Four Crusades were fought by the European Christians to liberate Jerusalem from Seljuk Turks (Muslims) who did not permit Christian pilgrims to enter the holy land.

Arab Civilisation

• Muhammad the prophet of Islam was born in Mecca in 571 AD.

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• When he was 40, he had visions of truth and became a prophet. • He forbade the worship of idols and made many enemies. Ultimately he had to leave Mecca and take refuge in Medina. This event took place in 622 AD and is known as the year of Hijira or migration and from it Muslims date their era (Hijira Samvat). • The Quran, the holy book of Islam, is divided into a number of sutras or chapters and contains the teachings of Muhammad. Besides the Quran the life of a Muslim is guided by the Sunna, the practices of Muhammad and the Hadees, the sayings of Muhammad. • After his death (632 AD), his successors were known as Caliphs or Khalifas, who held both religious and political authority. • From Arabia, Islam spread very fast to many other parts of the world. • •

• • • •

• In 1644, China was conquered by the Manchus, who continued to rule until 1911 AD.

Contributions of Medieval China

• To prevent drain on the country’s wealth the Sung rulers started the use of paper-money. • The invention of gun-powder was made in China in the 10th century. • The Chinese made iron-chain suspension bridges as early as the 10th century. • The Chinese invented the first method of printing in 10th century.

Medieval Japan

• Japan consists of hundreds of small islands, of which four are major islands–Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. • Samurai or the warriors were similar to the knights of Western Europe. • The most unique contribution of medieval Japan to literature was a form of poetry called Haiku. Contributions of Arab Civilisation The Arabs made all knowledge their own • The important contribution of medieval Japan to art was Ikenana or the art of and developed in further. flower arrangement. Al Razi (Rhazes), an Arab scientist, • Buddhism reached Japan early in the 6th discovered the true nature of small pox century from China through Korea and and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) discovered that during the course of centuries it became tuberculosis is infectious. widespread. In certain periods it even Some of the famous literary works of the eclipsed Shintoism, the old religion of Japan. Arab civilisation are the Rabaiyat by Omar • Gradually, the Japanese developed their Khayyam, Shahnama by Firdausi and the open distinct schools of Buddhism the most Arabian Nights, a collection of 1,001 stories. famous of which is Zen Buddhism. The Arabs developed their own decorative designs. Their buildings had bulb-like Modern world domes, small minarets, horse-shoe arches (1500 AD Onwards) and twisted columns. The Arabs also developed a decorative style Renaissance of writing called Calligraphy and made • The 16th century is commonly designated book-illumination an art. as the Age of Renaissance, also called the Revival of learning. Medieval China From the early 7th century, China was ruled • Italy practically became the home of the Renaissance. by the Tang dynasty. The rule of Tang dynasty was followed by • Great writers of the Italian Renaissance included Dante, Patriarch, Boccaccio the Sung dynasty. After this for about 100 years China was and Machiavelli. The great painters of ruled by the Mongols. Italian Renaissance included Leonardo da The Rule of the Mongols in China was Vinci (Famous Painters; The Last Supper followed by that of Ming dynasty. and Monalisa) Michelangelo (The Last

World History

Judgement and the Fall of Man) and Raphel (Madonna) Great astronomers of Italian Renaissance included Bruno and Galileo. • The Renaissance movement was enormously, helped by the invention of the printing press (in 1454 AD by Gutenberg of Germany; Gutenberg Bible 1456–the first printed book).

Reformation

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Catholics united the Whigs and Tories of the Anglican Church against him. • Whigs as well as Tories–dispatched an invitation to William of Orange ruler of Holland to succeed to the English throne and save England form Catholic tyranny. • William accepted the invitation and came to England for his purpose. • This event known as Glorious or Bloodless Revolution in England.

• It was started by Martin Luther in Witten­ berg, Germany in 1517 AD by publicly Magna Carta (or The Great protesting against the sale of letters of Charter), 1215 AD Indulgence. • It was a revolt against the control of con­ • It was the Charter of liberties which King Johan II of English was forced to sign in science by the priests. 1215 AD at Runnymede. Magna Carta was • With the breaking away from the Roman said to be the foundation-stone of rights and Catholic Church by such leaders as Luther liberties of the English people. of Germany and Calvin of Switzerland, Western Europe was split between Catholic Industrial Revolution and Protestant countries, a situation which • The process of change that transformed developed enmities of the fiercest nature. Britain first and then other countries from • The movement, which began within the agricultural to industrial economics. Catholic Church to combat the effects of • Capitalism: Economic system in which a the Protestants. Reformation was known as country’s trade and industry are organised Counter Reformation Movement. and controlled by the owners of capital the chief elements being competition, profit, Geographical Discoveries supply and demand. • During 1288 AD-1293 AD Marco Polo (1256 • The American Revolution started in 1775 AD AD-1326 AD) Venetian traveller travelled and lasted until 1781 AD. from Venice to China and Japan. He was • On July 4, 1776 AD, the Declaration of the ‘first European to visit China’. Independence was issued. Its author was • In 1487 AD, Bartholomew Diaz, reached Thomas Jefferson. the pointed which the Portuguese named • The colonies won the war against England. Cape of Good Hope (the southern-most The American Revolution made possible the point of Africa). establishment of a new nation the United • Vasco da Gama followed this route and States of America (USA). sailed on round the Cape and reached • In 1783 AD, England acknowledged Calicut in India in 1498 AD. American independence in the Treaty of • Italian sailor Columbus’ trip was financed Paris and George Washington was elected the first President of USA. by Spain from where he sailed in 1492 AD. When he has reached land, he thought he French Revolution (1789 AD-1793 AD) had reached India; so he called the islands • It gave to humanity new ideas of ‘Liberty, the Indies; but it was America. Equality and Fraternity’. • Magellan was the first to sail round the world. • The French Revolution started with the fall of Bastille Fort. Glorious Revolution: 1688 • In France the Revolution established the AD, England political supremacy of the middle class in • James II was Roman Catholic. His tactless the towns and transferred the bulk of landed attempt to secure freedom of worship for

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General Knowledge  2020

Course of War: Germany, Austria, Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria were on one side. They were called Central Powers. On the other side were England, France, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Russia. They were called the Allied Powers. Unification of Italy The Allied powers joined by Italy in 1915 and (1848 AD-1870 AD) • The struggle for Italian independence and USA in 1917. The war started on August 4, unification was organised by the two famous 1914 and ended on November 11, 1918. revolutionaries–Mazzini and Garibaldi. Peace Settlement (1919 AD-1920 AD): The The movement led by them is known as the Central Powers were completely defeated by the Allied Power and an Armistice was ‘Young Italy’ movement. • Rome was still outside the kingdom of Italy. signed on November 11, 1918 followed by a It was ruled by the Pope. Italian soldiers Peace Conference at Paris. After prolonged liberated the city of Rome in 1870 AD and discussions, the Treaty of Versailles was in 1871 AD. Rome became the capital of signed between the allies and Germany on June 28, 1919. United Italy. At the instance of Woodrow Wilson, the Unification of Germany: President of America, the League of Nations (1848 AD-1871 AD) officially came into existence of January 10, • Bismarck described a policy of unification as 1920. Its headquarters were fixed at Geneva one of ‘blood and iron’ The Policy of blood in Switzerland. and iron meant a policy of war. Russian Revolution (1917 AD) • The unification of Germany was completed • It established the ideology of Marxism. as a result of Prussia-France War (1870) in which the French emperor Louis Bonaparte • The great revolution in Russia took place in two stages. The first stage of Russian was defeated and captured. This war enabled Revolution overthrew of the Czar Nicholas Bismarck to absorb the remaining German II. The second stage in November of the same states into a united Germany. year led to the establishment of the world’s first communists by Bolsheviks under Lenin. First World War: • Russian Revolution began with March (Aug. 4, 1914 AD-Nov. 11, 1918 AD) Revolution. Disorders broke out in Petrograd. Causes: The causes of First World War were • The Bolsheviks led by Lenin seized as under: power in Petrograd on November 7, 1917 1. Militarism. AD–November Revolution. 2. Narrow Nationalism or Competitive • In the period between 1917 AD and 1920 Patriotism. AD, the Communists took drastic action 3. Economic imperialism. against internal enemies or counter 4. Anglo-German Rivalry and the Charter revolutionaries as they were called. Former of William II. landlords, capitalists, Czarist officers etc. 5. Lack of an international organisation. were arrested, exiled or executed the Czar Immediate Cause: The immediate cause of the and his family was killed. war was the murder of Archduke Ferdinand, who was the heir to the Austrian throne. The • In 1923 AD, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) came into being. Austrians held the Government of Serbia property to the peasantry in the countryside. For Europe and the world it represented an ideal of popular sovereignty and equality before the law.

responsible for the murder and ultimately attacked Serbia. There was strong rivalry already between Austria-Hungary and Serbia in the Balkans.

)) Note: In 1991 AD, Communist Party rule in Soviet Union collapsed following the failure of an anti-Gorbachev coup by Communist hardliners. The constituent republics

World History

asserted their independence and the Soviet Union was officially dissolved on 25th December, 1991 AD. In the same month, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a looser organisation with responsibility for economic and military co-operation was formed by Russia, Ukraine and Belarus. Nine other former Soviet republics joined later. Now CIS is a community of 12 independent states. Three former Soviet republics (Baltic States)–Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania–are fully independent states. It is notable that Soviet Union was a federal state consisting of 15 separate republics.

Chinese Revolution 1911 AD (Republican Revolution) and 1949 AD (Communist Revolution) • In October 1911, a revolution under the leadership of Sun-yat-sen ousted the Manchu or Ching Dynasty and a republic was set up. • The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921. • The Communists under their leader Maotse-tung (Mao Zedong) embarked on the 6000–mile long march (October 1934 AD-October 1935 AD) to form a new power base in northern China. • Mao-tse-tung quickly established control over the whole of China and he remained leader until his death in 1976.

Turkish Revolution (1923 AD)

• Turkey was called Sick man of Europe. • The disintegration of Ottoman Empire began in the 19th century and was completed after Turkey’s defeat in the First World War. • The treatment meted out to turkey by the Allies had led to a mass upsurge in India directed against Britain. This upsurge is known as the Khilafat Movement. • Turkey was proclaimed a republic in October 29, 1923 AD and Kemal became the first President of Turkey. The Turkish Sultan had carried the title if Caliph (Khalifa) the

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new government abolished the institution of Caliph (Khalifa) in 1924 AD. • Mustafa Kemal Pasha is known as the ‘founder of modern Turkey and Ataturk’ (the father of the Turks).

Economic Depression of The World (1929 AD-1934 AD)

• The Great Depression of 1929 AD-1934 AD was worldwide starting with an agricultural recession followed by financial panic and collapse known as the Wall Street Crash (October, 1929 AD) in the USA.

Fascism in Italy

• The unification of Italy was only completed in 1870 AD.

Militarism in Japan

• In Japan the democratically elected government, increasingly embarrassed by economic, financial and political problems fell under the influence of the army in the early 1930s. • The military soon involved Japan in war with China and later took the country into the Second World War with its attack on Pearl Harbour (1941 AD).

Second World War (Sep. 3, 1939 AD-Aug. 14, 1945 AD)

Causes: The causes of Second World War were as under– 1. The Treaty of Versailles (1919 AD). 2. Nationalist Movements of Germany and Italy. 3. Conflict of ideology between Dictatorship and Democracy. 4. Inefficiency of League of Nations. 5. Colonial and Commercial Rivalry. 6. Aggressiveness of Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis. • The immediate cause of the war was the refusal of Poland to surrender, so Germany invaded Poland on Sep. 1, 1939 AD, Britain and France as they were under treaty obligations to aid Poland declared war against Germany on Sep. 3, 1939 AD. • On one side were Germany, Italy and Japan called the Axis Powers (or Central Powers)

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and others were Great Britain, France USSR, USA, China etc. called the Allied Powers (or Allies). Germany had to face defeat once again. After the fall of Germany, USA and UK concentrated their focus against Japan. On 6th August, 1945 an atom bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, Japan was asked to surrender and when she refused another atom bomb was dropped on 9th August, 1945 AD on the city of Nagasaki. On August 14, 1945 AD, Japan surrendered unconditionally and the Second World War came to an end.

Important Battles

• Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453)–England and France • Seven Years’ War (1756–1763)–French were defeated by the English • Battle of Trafalgar (1805)–British force led by Duke of Wellington defeated French force led by Napoleon Bonaparte. • Opium War (1839–1842)–China and Britain • Crimean War (1853–56)–War between Russia and the alliance of England, France, Turkey and Sardinia • Boer War (1899–1902)–Fought in South Africa between the British and the Boers. • World War-I (1914–1918)–Germany (with Austria, Hungary) against Britain (with Russia, France, Japan Canada and Belgium)

• World War-II (1935–1945)–Axis Power (Germany, Italy and Japan) against the Allies (Great Britain, USA, USSR, China). Axis Powers were defeated. Persons and their Titles Persons

Titles

Adolf Hitler

Fuehrer

Mussolini

II Duke

Florence Nightingale

Lady with the Lamp

John of Arc

Maid of Orleans

Elizabeth I

Maid in Queen

Bismark

Man of Blood & Iron

Napoleon

Man of Destiny Little Corporal

Revolution and their year Revolution

Year

American War of Independence

1776

Russian Revolution

1917

French Revolution

1789

Chinese Revolution

1911

Communist Revolution in India

1949

Industrial Revolution

1750–1850 

Geography

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World Geography Universe • The universe comprises billions of galaxies. The galaxies are made up of millions of stars held together by the force of gravity and these stars account for most of the masses of the galaxy. • Our own galaxy is called the Milky Way (or the Akashganga) and it contains about 300 billion stars and one of these is our sun. Planets and other objects go round the sun and make up the solar system with the sun at the centre. • In the 14th Century, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and the other heavenly bodies revolved around it. • In 1543 AD, Copernicus said that the sun is the centre of universe and not the earth. • Kepler supported Copernicus but said that the sun is the centre of solar system and not the universe. •

Evolution of Universe (i) Big Bang Theory

(Proposed by Georges Le Maitre). • Big Bang was an explosion that occurred 13.8 billion years ago, leading to the formation of galaxies of stars and other heavenly bodies.

(ii) Steady State Theory

• Bondi, Gold and Fred Hoyle developed this theory and states that although the universe is expanding, it nevertheless does not change its appearance over time, it has no beginning and no end.

(iii) The Pulsating Theory

• According to this theory, the universe is supposed to be expanding and contracting alternately, i.e., pulsating. At present, the universe is expanding. • Milky Way Galaxy formed 5 billion years after the Big Bang. • Latest known galaxy is the Dwarf Galaxy. • Origin of the universe is explained by the Measurement Units of Space Big Bang Theory, formulated and proposed Light Year: It is the distance covered by by the Belgian astronomer and cosmologist light in one year in vacuum at a speed of Georges Lemaitre. 12 300000 km/s. 1 light year = 9.46 × 10 km. • Andromeda is our nearest galaxy. Astronomical Unit (A.U.): It is the mean distance between the earth and the sun. One Stars Light Year is equal to 60,000 A.U. • Stars are made of hot burning gases. 1 A.U. = 150 million km. Parsec: One parsec is the distance to a star • They emit light of their own and are very large and very hot. that subtends an angle of 1 arc second act • Light takes about 4.3 years to reach us from an arc length of 1 A.U. the next nearest star proxima centauri. 1 Parsec = 3.26 light years.

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Evolutionary stages of a star 1. Proto Star: It is the stage, where the helium core become increasingly heavy accompanied with expanding out the layers. A Proto star is a highly condensed cloud of gases mainly hydrogen and helium. 2. Red Giant: This stage results into the swelling and reddening of the outer regions of the star. Such stars of gigantic dimension are called Red Star. 3. White Dwarf: If the mass of the star is relatively small like that of our sun, the gases that reach the outer layer are expelled. As these expelled gases cool and contract, the star becomes a white dwarf.

The Solar System • The Sun, Eight planets (excluding Pluto) and their respective satellites. • Interstellar debris such as asteroids, meteoroids, comets. • The electrically charged gases, called Plasma. • Interplanetary dust particles. • The components of solar system other than planets dwarf planets and satellites are called the Small Solar System Bodies (SSSB). • The gravitational pull of the sun keeps all the planets and other objects revolving around it. • Planets revolve around the sun in an elliptical orbit. • In the solar system, the planet nearest to the sun is Mercury and the planet farthest from the sun is Neptune (and not Pluto). • The solar system is dominated by the sun, which accounts for almost 99.9% of the matter in the whole solar system. • Pluto is a dwarf planet. • Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are called terrestrial planets and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called gaseous planets.

Origin of Solar System Various theories have been given by different persons to explain the origin of Solar System.

Hypothesis

Propounder

Cepheid Hypothesis

A.C. Banerji

Nova Hypothesis

Hoyle and Lyttleton

Electromagnetic Hypothesis

H. Alfven

Interstellar Dust Hypothesis

Schmidt

Nebular Cloud Hypothesis

Dr. von Weizsacker

Protoplanet Hypothesis

G. Kuiper

Gaseous

Hypothesis Kant

Nebular Hypothesis

Laplace

Planetesimal Hypothesis Chamberlin and Moulton Tidal Hypothesis

James Jeans & Harold Jeffrey

Binary Star Hypothesis

H.N. Russel

Fission Hypothesis

Ross Gun

Members of the Solar System Sun

• It is the nearest star to the earth. • Its diameter is 14 lakh kms. • It is composed of 71% Hydrogen, 26.5% helium and 2.5% other elements. • Within the sun, hydrogen is converted to helium due to nuclear fusion releasing a tremendous amount of heat and light. • The shining surface of the sun is called Photosphere. • The outer layer of sun’s atmosphere made up of thin hot gases is called Corona. • The middle surface is chromosphere. The temperature of Photosphere is 6000°C, that of chromosphere about 32400°C and that of Corona about 2700000°C. • The planet travels with the sun through millions of stars in our galaxy at a speed of about 70,000 kms per hour. • The sun is about 150 million kms away from the earth. • Light takes about 8 minutes 20 seconds to reach the earth from the sun.

Geography

• Solar Winds. The sun is continuously emitting streams of proton in all directions either as spiral streams called Solar Wind or bouts of incandescent material called Solar Flares. Solar flares, being hot ionised gases, pose danger to satellite communication. • Aurora: The constituent particles of the solar wind are trapped by the Earth’s magnetic field and enter the Earth’s upper atmosphere as Aurora. It is described as Aurora Borealis in the Northern hemisphere and Aurora Australia in Southern hemisphere. • Bright spots are called Plages and dark spots are called Sunspots. Specifics of the Sun Average distance from the Earth

149598900 km

Diameter

1391980 km

Temperature of the core

15000000°C

Rotation speed

25.38 days (with respect to Equator) 33 days (with respect to Poles)

Mass

330000 times of earth

The Planets

• These are opaque bodies. • A ninth planet has been recently discovered by NASA named Carla. • The sequence of planets according to their distance from the sun is Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. • The sequence of planets according to their size (in descending order i.e. from big to small) is Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Earth, Venus, Mars and Mercury.

Classification of Planets

• Planets are classified into the following two groups inner and outer planets. These are separated by asteroid belt. Inner Planet

Outer Planet

They are called as terrestrial or rock planets. They are nearer to the Sun.

They are called as Jovian or Gaseous planets. They are far away from the Sun.

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Inner Planet

Outer Planet

They have a core of molten metals.

They have ring system around the Sun.

They include: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

They include: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.

Mercury

• The planet has no water on it. • Mercury planet has no gases like CO 2, N2, H2 and O2 which can act as building blocks of life. • Mercury planet has no protective blanket like Ozone.

Venus

• The planet is nearest to the Earth and is also the brightest planet. • Venus is known as the “Evening Star” as well as “Morning Star”. • Known as the “Veiled Planet”. • Also known as the “Earth’s twin”. It also rotates clockwise like Uranus. • Venus is the hottest planet (even hotter than Mercury). • Venus has no water on it. There is no sufficient oxygen on the Venus.

The Earth

• The Earth is 23½° tilted on its axis and, thus, makes 66½° angle. • It takes 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds to rotate on its axis. • Earth is known as the “watery planet” or the “blue planet”. • Earth is the only known planet which provides sustenance or life on it. • The earth has all the essential elements like carbon (in the form of CO2), hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) which act as building blocks for the origin of life. • It has ‘Goldilock Zone’. • The earth has a lot of water in the form of lakes, rivers and oceans for the growth and survival of life. • The earth has enough oxygen gas in its atmosphere for the survival of living beings through breathing.

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• The earth has a protective blanket of ozone layer high up in its atmosphere to save life from the harmful ultra violet radiations coming from the sun.

The Moon

• The Moon is the only satellite of the earth. • It has diameter of 3475 km and its circumference is 10864 km while its orbit is elliptical. • The maximum distance (apogee) of the moon from the earth is 4,06,000 km and the minimum distance (perigee) is 3,64,000 km. • It takes 27 days, 7 hours and 43 minutes to rotate on its axis (this period of about 27½ days is called the sidereal month) and approximately the same period of time it takes to revolve around the earth. The moon’s period of revolution with reference to the sun is about 29.53 days (29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 2.8 seconds). This period is called a syndic month. • Only 59 per cent of the total surface of the moon is visible from the earth. • The highest mountain on the moon is Liebuity Mountain, which is 10,660 metre high. • T h e m o o n h a s n o a t m o s p h e r e , n o twilight and no sound. • The temperature during daytime is about 100°C and during night it drops down to about–180°C. • The light from the moon takes 1.3 seconds to reach the earth. • The size of the Moon is one-fourth (1/4th) the size of the earth. • Gravitational pull of Moon is one-sixth (1/6th) that of the earth. • Moon is also known as the fossil planet.

Mars

• Iron-rich red soil and pink sky of Mars give it the name, “Red Planet”. • Phobes and Demos are two satellites of Mars.

Jupiter

• Jupiter is also known as winter planet as its average temperature is very low (–148°C). • Ganymede, satellite of Jupiter is the largest satellite in the Solar System.

Saturn

• Saturn has bright concentric rings which are made up of ice and ice-covered dust particles which revolve around it. • Titan is the largest satellite of Saturn.

Uranus

• Uranus is about four times the size of the Earth. This planet appears Greenish in colour because of methane gas present in its atmosphere. • Uranus is the first planet to have been discovered by the use of a telescope. • Uranus is extremely cold, having surface temperature –190°C and is surrounded by 13 rings. • Uranus rotates from east to west on its axis, which is opposite to other planets except Venus. • The axis of Uranus has large inclination so that it appears to be lying down hence it bears the name “A Planet on its Side”.

Neptune

• Neptune is very similar to Uranus and can be considered as its twin. • Neptune is surrounded by methane rings of sub-zero temperature.

Pluto is not Planet now

• On the basis of the new definition of planet given by the IAU (International Astronomical Union), the world’s top institution on space science research, leading astronomers participating in IAU’s meet at Prague (Czech Republic) on August 24, 2006 declared that Pluto would no longer remain a planet. • Now, with the omission of Pluto from the Solar System, its membership has been restricted to the eight “classical” planets, namely, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Specifics of the Planets Biggest planet

Jupiter

Biggest Satellite

Ganymede

Blue planet

Earth

Green planet

Uranus

Brightest planet

Venus

Geography Specifics of the Planets Brightest star (outside solar system)

Sirius (Dog Star)

Closest star of solar system

Proxima Centauri

Coldest planet

Neptune

Evening star

Venus

Farthest planet from Sun

Neptune

Planet with maximum number of satellites

Jupiter

Hottest planet

Venus

Densest planet

Earth

Morning star

Venus

Nearest planet to Earth

Venus

Nearest planet to Sun

Mercury

Red planet

Mars

Smallest planet

Mercury

Earth twin

Venus

Asteroids (or Planetoids)

• Asteroids are also known as minor planets. • They are mostly found between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. They are a belt of debris which failed to assemble into planets and keeps on revolving around the sun. This has come to be called as ‘asteroid belt’. • All Asteroids rotate on their axis, every 5 to 20 hours. Certain asteroids may have satellites. • Trojan asteroids are found in two clouds moving in the orbit of Jupiter, one moving ahead of its and the other moving behind it. • • • • •

Facts to Remember

Saturn has maximum number of satellites. Pluto has the most electric orbit. Jupiter is the fastest rotating planet. Venus is the slowest rotating planet. Venus has the same period of rotation as revolution. • The length of the day is nearly same on the planet Mars as that of the Earth. • Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the Jovian planets. • The angle of inclination of Mars is nearly same as that of Earth.

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• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are the outer planets. • Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are the inner planets. • Venus rotates from East to West. • Uranus rotates from North to South. • Mercury is the fastest revolving planet. • Pluto is the slowest revolving dwarf planet. • Planet revolves around the Sun in Anticlockwise direction. • Mercury is the nearest planet to Sun. • Venus is the nearest planet to Earth. • Neptune was farthest from Sun during 1979-99. • Now Pluto (dwarf planet) is the farthest from the Sun after 1999 for the next 228 years. • Venus is the hottest planet, its atmosphere contains 97% CO2. • Pluto is the coldest and smallest dwarf planet. • Jupiter is the biggest planet. • Earth is the densest planet. • Venus is the brightest planet. • Earth is the blue planet. • Mars is the Red planet. • Venus is the Morning and Evening Star. • Pluto is the dwarf planet. • Venus is also called the Earth’s twin. • Saturn and Uranus is known as the planets with rings. • Pluto is the Biplanet i.e. dwarf planet. • Mercury has the shortest year. • Mercury has the maximum diurnal range of temperature. Planets and their Satellites Planet

Natural Satellites

Earth

Earth’s moon

Mars

Phobos, Deimos

Jupiter

Adrastea, Metis, Amalthea, Thebe, Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto, Leda, Himalia, Lysithea, Elara, Ananke, Carme, Pasiphae, Sinope

Saturn

Atlas, Prometheus, Pandora, Janus, Epimetheus, Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Calypso, Dione, Helene, Rhea, Titan, Hyperion, Iapetus, Phoebe.

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Uranus

Cordelia, Ophelia, Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosalind, Belinda, Puck, Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon

Neptune

Naiad, Thalassa, Despina, Galatea, Larissa, Porteus, Triton, Nereid

Pluto (dwarf planet)

Charon and 2003 UB 313

Meteors and Meteorites

• Meteors and Meteorites are also called shooting stars. • When meteors are large and do not burn up completely, they land on the earth’s surface and are known as Meteorites. • All meteorites are believed to originate in the asteroid belt, where a sudden collision may send them towards the earth and the earth’s gravity attracts them towards its surface.

• Closest star to our solar system is Proxima Centauri (4.2 light years away).

Concept of Black Hole and Chandrashekhar Limit

• The black holes are formed due to collapse and compaction under gravity, at the end of the life cycle. • A renowned Indian Physicist Chandrashekhar had predicted an upper limit to the mass of stars, which is called as Chandrashekhar limit. It is 1.44 times the mass of sun. Facts about Stars • There are 1022 stars in the Universe. • About 8000 stars are visible from the Earth with naked eye. • In either hemisphere, only 2000 stars are visible at any given time. • The other 2000 are located in the day-time sky and the brightness of the sun renders them invisible.

Comets

• Visitors of the Solar System. • Comets are made up to frozen gages which hold together rocky and metallic materials. • A comet becomes visible only when it travels close to the sun. • Its ice melts and the age and dust is swept back into a tail. • The tail always points away from the sun. So when it is travelling away from the Sun it is led by its tail.

Stars

• Stars are heavenly bodies made up to hot burning gases, thus shining by their own light. • Stars seem to be fixed with respect to each other. In fact they are in rapid motion but they are at such great distance that relative changes in position become noticeable only over the centuries. • A star’s colour indicates the temperature of its surface. Blue colour denotes maximum temperature.

Some Information about the Stars

• Brightest Star outside solar system is Sirius, also called Dog Star.

Constellations

• To enable astronomers to identify roughly the position of the stars, the sky has been divided into units. These units are known as Constellations. • At present 88 constellations are recognized.

Earth’s Galaxy: The Milky Way

• The Milky Way is a large spiral-shaped galaxy. • It is called the Milky Way because it appears as a soft glowing light of billions of stars. These stars are so far that they can be seen only in constellation, not separately. • It takes about 250 million years to complete one revolution.

Light Year

• Large distances in outer space are measured in light years. • A light year is the distance light travels in one year at the speed of 299,792,458 metres per second or roughly 300,000 km per second. • No star, apart from the sun, is close enough to Earth to appear as anything but a point of light.

Geography

Andromeda: Earth’s Closest Galactic Neighbour

• Andromeda is a spiral galaxy and also our closest neighbour. • It is the farthest object that can be seen with the naked eye. • Along with the Milky Way, it belongs to a group of galaxies known as the Local Group, which in turn is a part of Virgo Cluster of groups. • About 30 galaxies, along with the Milky Way and the Andromeda so grouped in one cluster called the Local Group.

Nebulae

• Nebulae are hanged interstellar clouds of gas and dust that appear as faint, misty patches of light scattered all over the sky. • A nebula depends for its luminosity upon the presence of stars that have either arisen from it or are contained in it. • If there are no suitable stars, the nebula does not shine and remains dark and can be detected only because it blots out the light of the stars beyond.

The Earth is not Flat

• If the earth were a flat disc, then the rising sun would have been seen at all places at the same time. • When a ship approaches land, its funnel of mast is seen first and then the hull. If the earth had been flat, the whole ship would have been seen at the same time.

The Earth • The earth is rarely oriented in the same position during successive eclipses but it always casts a circular shadow thus proving that the earth is a sphere. • At the North Pole, the Pole Star can always be observed at 90 degrees in the sky, since the star lies in the line with the axis of the earth. • As one travels southwards, the angle of Pole Star decreases. • At the equator the angle becomes zero degree. • This observation proves that the path of travel is an arc of a circle.

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• The photographs of the Earth taken from the space prove beyond any doubt that the earth is a sphere.

The Earth as an Oblate Spheroid

• Refined measurements of the earth have proved that true form of the earth resembles a sphere that has been compressed at the poles and made to bulge at the Equator. This form is known as an oblate spheroid. Geological History of the Earth Period

Beginning (years ago)

Cenozoic Era Quaternary Period Holocene Epoch

10000

Pleistocene Epoch

2 million

Tertiary Period Pliocene Epoch

5 million

Miocene Epoch

24 million

Oligocene Epoch

38 million

Eocene Epoch

55 million

Palaeocene Epoch

63 million

Mesozoic Era Cretaceous period

138 million

Jurassic period

205 million

Triassic period

240 million

Palaeozoic Era Permian period

290 million

Lower carboniferous period

330 million

Upper Carboniferous period

360 million

Devonian period

410 million

Silurian period

435 million

Ordovician period

500 million

Cambrian period

570 million

Pri-Cambrian period

4.5 billion

Biosphere

• The part of the earth where life exists is called the Biosphere (‘bios’ means ‘life’).

Lithosphere

• The uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which is capable of supporting life is called Lithosphere.

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• The Lithosphere (or land) covers twosevenths or 29.22% of the total surface area of the earth.

Hydrosphere

• Hydrosphere (or sea) covers 70.70% of the total surface area of the earth. • Water is freely available in the gaseous, liquid and solid state.

Latitude

• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth surface from the centre of earth, measured in degree. These lines are called parallels of latitude and on the globe they are circles. • The distance between any two parallels of latitude is always equal. One degree latitude = Approx 111 km. • The most important lines of latitudes are Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer (23½°N), The Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S) the Arctic Circle (66½°N) and the Antarctic Circle (66½°S).

Longitudes are measured from zero to 18° east and 180° west (or 180°) and both 180° longitudes share the same line, in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. • As the earth rotates around its axis, at any moment one line of longitude “the noon meridian”–faces the sun, and at that moment, it will be noon everywhere on it. After 24 hours the Earth has undergone a full rotation with respect to the sun, and the same meridian again faces noon. Thus, each hour the earth rotates by 360/24 = 15 degrees.

International Date Line (idl)

• The International Date Line (IDL) is an imaginary line on the surface of the Earth, that runs from the north to the south pole and demarcates one calendar day from the next. • It passes through the middle of the Pacific Ocean, roughly following the 180° longitude but it deviates at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and Gilbert Islands. • The International Date line is on the opposite side of the Earth Prime Meridian. Longitude • Longitude is the angular distance of a point • The Prime Meridian helps to define Universal Time and is the meridian from which all on the earth surface along the equator, east other time zones are calculated. or west from the Prime Meridian. • Prime Meridian is the semi-circle from pole • A traveller crossing the International Date Line eastbound (i.e., from Japan to USA) to pole, from which all the other meridians subtracts one day, or 24 hours, so that radiate Eastwards and Westwards up the calendar date to the west of the line is to 180°. repeated after the following midnight. • 180° meridian (International Date Line) is exactly opposite to the Prime Meridian. Such • Crossing the IDL westbound results in 24 hours being added, advancing the calendar points are called anti-pedal points. date by one day.

Local Time (L) and Time Zones

• The Indian Government has accepted the meridian of 82.5 degree east for standard time, which is 5 hrs. 30 mins. ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time. • The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each being 15 degree or 1 hour apart in time (360 degree = 24 hours, 360/24=15 degree in 1 hour) or 1 degree in 4 minute are called Standard Time Zones. • Russia has as many as 11 time zones. • Both USA and Canada have five time zones.

Longest day in the Northern hemisphere

21 June

Shortest day in the Northern hemisphere

22 December

Equal day and night in the Northern hemisphere

21 March and 23 September

Longest day in the Southern hemisphere

22 December

Shortest day in Southern hemisphere

21 June

Equal day and night in the Southern hemisphere

21 March and 23 September

Geography

The Earth’s Movement

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Summer Solstice

1. It rotates on its own axis from west to • On June 21, the earth is so located in its orbit that the sun is overhead on the Tropic east once in every 24 hours. It causes of Cancer (23½°N). day and night. • On this date the northern hemisphere is 2. It revolves around the sun in an orbit tipped towards the sun having the longest once in every 365 days. It causes the day, while the southern hemisphere is tipped season and the year. away from the sun having the shortest day.

Rotation of Earth

• Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23 hours, 56 minutes and 40.91 seconds. • The rotational speed at equator is maximum (1967 km/hr) and then decreases towards the poles, where it is zero. The rotation of the earth has the following implications such as 1. Causation of day and night. 2. Change in the direction of winds and Ocean currents. 3. Rise and fall of tides everyday. 4. A difference of one hour between the two meridians which are 15° apart. • •

• •

• •

Revolution of Earth

Winter Solstice

• On December 22. • The sun is overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn (23½°S), resulting in the shortest day in the northern hemisphere.

Equinoxes

• Two days in a year when day and night are equal throughout the world are equinoxes. • The ‘vernal equinox’ occurs on March 21 and it is also called the spring equinox in the northern hemisphere. • The ‘autumnal equinox’ occurs on September 23.

Midnight Sun

• This phenomenon is observed in the Arctic It is the earth’s motion in elliptical orbit and Antarctic zones around mid-summer, around the sun. when the sun does not sink below the It takes 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes horizon throughout 24 hours of the day and and 45.51 seconds. The revolution of earth therefore, may be seen at midnight. results in: • This is the direct consequence of the 1. Changes of season. inclination of the axis of the earth to the 2. Variation of the length of the days and plane of the orbit. nights at different times of the year. 3. Shifting of the wind belts. Eclipses • A ‘solar eclipse’ occurs between sun rays and Perihelion new moon when the moon passes directly The position of the earth of any other planet in front of the sun so that its shadow lies in its orbit when it is at its nearest point on the earth. In other words, the moon lies to the sun. between the sun and the earth. The earth reaches its perihelion about • The ‘lunar eclipse’ takes place when the 3rd January at a distance of about 147 earth comes in between the sun and the million kilometres. moon so that the shadow of the earth is cast on the moon. Aphelion • A lunar eclipse takes place on a full moon. The position of the earth of any other Specifics of the Earth planet in its orbit when it is at its distant point from the sun. Age 4.6 billion years The earth reaches its aphelion on 4th July Mass 5.9 × 10–24 kg when the earth is at a distances of 152 Volume 1083 × 1012 km3 million kilometres.

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Mean Density

5.513g /cm3

Shape

Oblate spheroid or a gleoid

Radius of Earth

6400 km

Total surface area

509700000 sq km

Land area (29%)

148400000 sq km

Water area (71%)

361300000 sq km

Rotation time

23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.09 seconds

Revolution time

365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 45.51 seconds

Orbit speed about the Sun

29.8 km/second

Mean surface temperature

14°C

Mean distance from the Sun

149598500 km

Inclination of polar axis from orbit plane

23°26 min and 59 sec

Deepest Ocean point

11034 m, Marina Trench

Internal Structure of the Earth The Earth’s Crust

• The outermost solid cover or shell of the earth is known as the earth’s crust. • The thickness of the crust is about 30 km. • The crust is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the earth. This layer has the least density and its thickness varies about 8 to 40 km. Mohorovicic Discontinuity or Moho marks the lower limit of the crust. • This layer is also called Sial (silica and aluminium). The average density of this layer is 2.7 gm/cm3. • It is thicker in the region of the continents and thinner in the region of the Ocean floors. • The upper part of the crust consists of silica and aluminium in greater proportions. That is why, it is called ‘Sial’. • Whereas the lower part of the crust is called ‘Sima’ because the proportion of silica and magnesium is higher in this part.

The Mantle

• This layer is the intermediate layer of the earth in terms of both its location and density. • It is about 2900 km in thickness. • It is divided into further two layers upper mantle and lower mantle. The upper part of the mantle is called the Asthenosphere, which is about 250 km thick. • The mantle layer is also known as Sima (silica and magnesium). • The average density of this layer is about 5.68 gm/cm3. • The transitional zone separating the mantle from the core is called the Gutenberg Discontinuity.

Discontinuities

The various layers are separated by dis­ continuilies, which are evident in seismic data. 1. Concord discontinuity lies between upper crust and lower crust. 2. Mohorovicic discontinuity lies between crust and montle. 3. Gutenberg discontinuity lies between core and mantle. Here the earth’s density as well as velocity of ‘P’ waves increases. 4. Lehman discontinuity divides upper core and lower core. 5. Repetti discontinuity lies between upper mantle and lower mantle.

Core

• The core is the innermost layer of the earth and occupies its center. It is about 3500 km in radius. • The outer part of the core is believed to have the properties of a liquid and the innermost part of the core (about 1255 km in radius) may be called solid or crystalline. • T h i s l a y e r i s a l s o k n o w n a s N i f e (nickel and iron). • Temperature of the core is between 2200°C and 2750°C. • Density of this part of the earth is 17.2 gm/cm3.

Composition of Earth

• Made up of over 100 elements.

Geography

Eight Important Elements Oxygen Aluminium Calcium Potassium Magnesium Silicon Iron Sodium

46.5% 8.13% 3.63% 2.62% 2.09% 27.72% 5.01% 2.85%

Continental Drift Theory

151

continental crusts. These segments are called plates and they are moving on the asthenosphere, which is not a liquid, but a solid which flows under stress. • About 20 such plates have been identified. There are seven major plates such as Eurasia, Antarctica, North America, Pacific, African and Indian Plate.

Plate margins

Depending upon the type of movement, plate margins are three types: 1. Divergent plate margin (constructive margins) 2. Convergent plate margin (Destructive margins) 3. Parallel plate margin (Conservative­ margin or transform boundary) • Collision can occur between two oceanic plates, one oceanic and one continental plate or two continental plates.

• This theory was given by Alfred Wagener, in 1915, to explain the origin and evolution of the continents and the oceans. 1. According to this theory, about 250 million years ago, there was only one continent named pangea surrounded by one mass of waterbody named Panthalassa. 2. The present shape of the continents and Oceans is due to the breakup of Pangea. 3. The breaking process started about 200 million years ago. Exogenetic or External Forces 4. The northern rifts cut pangea from east • The forces affecting the surface of the earth to west creating laurasia in the north and from outside are called the external or Gondwana land in south. exogenetic forces. 5. A shallow sea called tethys was situated • Weathering and Erosion are the examples between the laurasia and Gondwana of external forces. land.

Sea Floor Spreading Theory

• The concept of sea floor spreading was first formulated by Harry Hess in the year of 1960. • According to this theory, the mid oceanic ridges were situated on the rising thermal convective current coming from mantle. • The oceanic crust moves in opposite directions from mid oceanic ridges and thus there is continuous upwelling of new molten materials along the mid oceanic ridges. These molten masses cool down and solidify to form new crust.

Endogenetic or Internal Forces

• The forces originating in the interior of the earth are called the internal or the endogenetic forces. • Volcanoes, Earthquakes and Landslides are the examples of internal forces. These forces are of two types: Sudden Endogenetic Forces • Sudden endogenetic forces are the result of long period preparation deep within the earth. • But their cumulative effects on the earth’s furface are quick and sudden.

Diastrophic Forces • Plate tectonic is a scientific theory that • Diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal movements which are caused describes the large-scale motions of earth’s due to forces deep within the earth. These lithosphere. diastrophic forces operate very slowly • The theory of Plate tectonics states that and their effects become discernible after the lithosphere is divided into several rigid thousands and millions of years. segments, which include both oceanic and

Plate Tectonics

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• These forces, termed as constructive forces effect larger areas of the globe and produce meso level reliefs for example, mountains, plateaus, plains, lakes, big faults etc. • These diastrophic forces are further sub­ divided in two groups namely epirogenetic forces and orogenetic forces. Epirogenetic forces • It causes upliftment and subsidence of continental masses through upward movements and are infact vertical movements. These forces and resultant movements affect larger parts of the continents. Orogenetic forces • Orogenetic movements is caused due to endogenetic forces working in horizontal movement. Horizontal forces and movement are also called as tangential forces. • Orogenetic or horizontal forces work in two ways, namely i. in opposite direction and ii. towards each other • When it operates in opposite direction, called tensional force. Tensional force create faulting, cracking and fracture. Tensional forces are also called as divergent forces. • The forces when operates face to face, is called compression forces or convergent forces. Compression creates folding and wrapping.

Rocks • The solid parts of the earth’s crust are called rocks. • Minerals are obtained from rocks. • Rocks are classified in three main types depending on the process of their formation: (a) Igneous (b) Sedimentary (c) Metamorphic

Igneous rocks

• Both these types of rocks are known as igneous rocks. • Igneous rocks are generally harder and granular. • There are no layers in igneous rocks. • Fossils are not found in igneous rocks. • Rocks formed by the cooling of molten matter beneath the earth’s surface are called intrusive igneous rocks. ‘Granite’ and ‘Gabbro’ are the main examples of these rocks. • Sometimes, the molten matter oozes out through cracks in the earth’s crust and spreads on the surface, forming extrusive igneous rocks. • Gabbro, Obsidian, Basalt, etc. are examples of extrusive igneous rocks. • A very large area of the Deccan Plateau consists of basalt rocks. • These rocks contain silica from 40 to 80%. • Other examples of igneous rocks are– Granite, Diorite, Dolerite, Punic stone, Basalt and Gabbro.

Sedimentary Rocks

• They are formed by the deposition, sed­ imentation and lethification of sediments over a long period of time. • Sometimes the remains of plants, dead animals etc. are found in the deposited material. • Limestones, chalk, dolomite change to marble. • Sandstone changes to quartzite. • Granite changes to gneiss. • Shale changes to slate. • They are fossiliferous. About 75% of the surface area of globe is covered by the sedimentary rocks, but 95% of the crust is composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks. • Sandstone, limestone, chalk, corals and shale are some examples of sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic Rocks

• The nature of igneous and sedimentary rocks • Hot lava pours out at the time of volcanic changes due to the effect of tremendous heat eruptions and cools down later on, forming or pressure, and new, transformed rocks, rocks. called metamorphic rocks, are formed. • The molten materials known as magma Uranium is found in metamorphic rocks. sometimes cool down beneath the earth’s • The layers of sedimentary rocks hold all crust, again forming rocks. reserve of coal, oil and natural gas.

Geography

Earthquakes • The sudden tremors or shaking of the earth’s crust is called an earthquake. • The earth’s crust is made up of different parts of various sizes. They are called plates. • Most of the earthquakes in the world are caused by the movements of the plates. • ‘Seismology’ deals with the study of earthquake. • ‘Richter scale’ and ‘Mercalli scale’ are the instruments to measure and record the magnitude and the intensity of an earthquake respectively.

Seismic Waves

• The place where the seismic waves originate beneath the earth’s surface is called the focus of the earthquake. • The epicenter is that point on the ground surface which is closest to the focus. • The waves generated by earthquake are called seismic waves and they are classified into 3 types such as: • Primary Waves (P Waves): These are the waves of short wavelength and high frequency. They are longitudinal waves and can travel through solid, liquid and gases. • Secondary Waves (S Waves): These are the waves of short wave length and high frequency. They are transverse waves, which travel through all solid particles only. • Surface Waves or Long Waves (L Waves): They are the waves of long wavelength, confined to the skin of the earth’s crust. It causes most of the earthquake’s structural damage.

Shadow Zones

• There are some specific areas where earthquake waves do not occur or occur rarely, such areas are termed as shadow zones. • They are located between 105° and 140° from epicentre.

The Earthquake Zones in India

• The Indian plate is moving from south to north. That is why there are earthquakes in the Himalayan regions.

153

Volcanoes Realscape

• There are three types of Volcanoes: i. Active Volcanoes ii. Dormant Volcanoes iii. Extinct Volcanoes

Distribution of Earthquakes

• • • • •

Most of the world earthquakes occur in: The zones of young fold mountain. The zones of lodging and faulting. The zone of junction of continental and oceanic margin. The zone of active volcanoes. Along different plate boundaries.

The Traditional Zones of Earthquakes

• Circum-Pacific belt • Mid-Continental belt • Mid-Atlantic belt

Volcanic Eruptions • Volcanic eruptions are closely associated with several integrated processes such as: • Gradual increase in temperature with increasing depth, due to the heat generated by degeneration of radioactive elements inside the earth. • Origin of magma due to the lowering of the melting point caused by reduction in pressure of overlying rocks due to fractures caused by splitting of plates. • Ascent of magma due to pressure from gases and vapour. • The pouring out of the magma or molten rock through ground surface is called a volcanic eruption. • At the time of eruption, the magma, steam, fragments of rock, dust and gaseous substances are ejected with great force from under the ground surface through a pipe like passage. • The opening of this pipe on the earth’s surface is known as the vent which forms a crater.

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Types of Volcanic Eruptions

• Volcanic eruptions are classified into two types depending on the manner of ejection of the magma: i. Central eruption ii. Fissure eruption

Central Eruption

• This type of eruption is sometimes very explosive, because lava, steam, gas, dust, smoke, stone fragments are ejected from a narrow pipe from under the ground with greater intensity. This type of eruption gives rise to conical or dome-shaped hills. Some examples of volcanic mountains formed due to central eruption are Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa, the Fujiyama in Japan and the Vesuvius and Mount Etna in Italy. •

• • •

• Mid-continental Belt: Volcanic zones of convergent continental plate margins. It includes volcanoes of alpine mountain chain, the mediterranean sea and fault zone of eastern Africa of stramboli, vesuvius, etna, Kilimanjaro etc. • Mid-Atlantic Belt, in which the volcanoes are fissure eruption type. e.g., Iceland, canary Island, cape verde, Azores etc.

Weathering

• It is the process of disintegration or decom­ position of rocks in situ by natural agents. It is a static process. • Physical weathering: It involves rocks disintegration without any change in the chemical constituents of the rocks. • The factors responsible for physical Fissure Eruption weathering are temperature change, A very long fissure (cracks) develops in the crystallisation of water into ice, the pressure ground surface and so, the molten rock, release mechanism. rock fragments, steam and gases within, • Chemical weathering: It involves the pour out slowly. decomposition due to chemical changes. These eruptions take place at a very slow There are various chemical processes speed. which cause chemical weathering such as Basalt plateaus are formed due to these solution, oxidation, carbonation, hydration eruptions. In Maharashtra, the fertile black regur soil and hydrolysis. has been formed from basalt rocks. It is also Process Mechanism of chemical weathering called black cotton soil. Volcanoes On the Basis of Periodicity of Eruptions

Active volcano

Volcanoes which errupt periodically e.g., etna (Sicily), stramboli (Lepari Island), mayon

Dormant volcano

Volcanoes which become quiet after their eruption for some time e.g., fujiyama (Japan), krakatoa (Indonesia), Vesuvius (Italy).

Extinct volcano

They have no indication of future eruption

Solution

It involves the dissolution of soluble particles and minerals from the rocks with the help of water.

Oxidation

It represents addition of oxygen to form oxides.

Hydration

It is the process of addition of water to the minerals.

Carbonation It is the reaction of carbonate or bicarbonate ions with minerals. Hydrolysis

Various Volcanic Belts

• Circum-Pacific Belt (Fire girdle of the Pacific or the fire ring of the Pacific): It extends across the Kamchatka peninsula, Kurile Islands, the Islands of Japan, Philippines, New Guinea, New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. Highest volcanic peaks—cotapaxi (South America), fujiyama (Japan), valley of ten thousand smokes (Alaska).

It is the process wherein both minerals of rocks and water molecules decompose and react in such a way that new mineral compounds are formed.

• Biological weathering: Plants and animals, including man, largely control it.

Erosion

• It involves removal of rock material and then transportation of it.

Geography

155

Landforms Mountains • •

• • •

Fold Mountains

• It is formed due to the compressive forces Mainly there are three types of landforms– generated by endogenetic forces (earthquake, Mountains, Plateaus, and Plains. landslide, etc.). The height of mountains is over 600 • Examples of fold mountains are Himalayas, metres and these have conical peaks. On Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas, etc. the basis of origin there are four types of (a) Young/New Fold Mountains: It came mountains; Block Mountains, Residual into existence after the continental drift. Mountains, Accumulated Mountains and Himalayas are regarded as the youngest Fold Mountains. mountains in the world. Block Mountains (b) Old Mountains: They belong to pre-drift They are formed when great block of earth’s era, then subject to denudation and crust may be raised or lowered due to tectonic activities. uplift, e.g., Aravallis (India), etc. When the earth’s crust cracks due to tension Major Mountain Ranges or compression, faulting takes place. Range Location Length (km) Examples of Block Mountain: Narmada, Tapti and Damodar valley in India, the Andes South America 7200 Vosges in France, Salt Range in Pakistan Himalayan South central 5000 and Block forest (Rhine valley) in Germany. Karakoram and Asia

Volcanic Mountains

• They are formed due to the accumulation of volcanic material. • It is also called as Mountains of Accumulation. • Examples: Mt. Fuji (Japan), Cotopaxi in Andes, Vesuvius and Etna in Italy, Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Kilimanjaro in Africa, Mt. Merapi in Sumatra etc.

Residual or Dissected Mountains

• They are formed as a result of erosion of plateaus and high plains by various agents of erosion. • Examples: Catskill mountains of New York. Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar and Rajmahal, Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern and Western Ghats of India.

Accumulated Mountains

• These are formed due to accumulation of sand, soil, rocks, lava, etc. on the Earth’s crust, e.g., sand dunes.

Hindukush

Rockies

North America

4800

Great dividing range

East Australia

3600

Atlas

North west Africa

1930

Caucasus

Europe

1200

Alaska

USA

1130

Alps

Europe

1050

Plateaus • Generally the height of plateau ranges from 300 to 500 feet. • Tibetan plateau (5000 m) is the highest plateau in the world. • Tectonic Plateau: These are formed by earth movements, which cause uplift and are normally of a considerable size and fairly uniform altitude.

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• When plateaus are enclosed by fold mountains, they are known as Intermont Plateau. • Examples of Tectonic Plateau are: Tibetan Plateau between the Himalayas and the Kunlun and the Bolivian Plateau between two ranges of the world.

Volcanic Plateau

These are formed by accumulation of lava, e.g., Deccan Plateau (India).

Dissected Plateau

Through the continual process of weathering and erosion by running water, ice and winds, high extensive plateau are gradually worn down, and their surface made irregular as example is the Scottish Highlands.

Intermountainous Plateau

Plateau formed between mountain, Example: Tibetan Plateau.

Mountainstep Plateaus

The flat region between a plain and the base of a mountain.

Continental Plateaus

These are formed when the Lacolith inside the earth comes to the surface due to weathering, e.g., the Southern Plateau. Plateau

Location

Tibetan Plateau

Between Himalayas And Kunlun Mountains

Deccan Plateau

Southern India

Arabian Plateau

South West Asia

Plateau of Mexico

Mexico

Plateau of Colombia

U.S.A.

Plateau of Madagascar

Madagascar

Plateau of Alaska

North West North America

Plateau of Bolivia

Andes Mountains

Great Basin Plateau

South of Colombia Plateau U.S.A.

Colorado Plateau

South of Great Basin Plateau U.S.A.

Domelike Plateau

These are formed due to the movement of man and animals on the surface, e.g., Ramgarh Plateau.

Plains Plains can be defined as flat area with low height (below 500 ft.).

Classification of Plains

1. Structural plains: Formed due to the uplift of a part of the sea floor e.g., the great plains of U.S.A. 2. Erosional plains: Formed when the elevated tract of land is worn down to a plain by the process of erosion e.g., plain of north Canada. 3. Depositional plains: Formed by filling up of sediments into depressions along the foothills, lakes and seas e.g Indo-Gangatic plain.

Weathered Plains

The plain formed due to weathering by rivers, glaciers, winds, etc.

Loess Plains setys

These are formed by the soil and sands brought by winds.

Karst Plains

Plains formed due to the weathering of limestone.

Erosional Plains

Plains near the river banks formed by river erosion.

Glacial Plains

Marshy plains formed due to the deposition of ice.

Desert Plains

These are formed as a result of the flow of rivers.

Deposition Plains

Large plains are formed due to the silt brought by the rivers.

Geography

Atmosphere •

• •

• •

Stratosphere

• The Stratosphere extends up to about 50 The atmosphere extends to about 1000 km, where Stratopause separates it from km from the surface of the earth. But 99% the mesosphere. of the total mass of the atmosphere is • In this layer, the temperature increases found within 32 km. with increase in height. This phenomenon is known as temperature inversion. Composition of the Atmosphere • The temperature rises in this layer from (i) Nitrogen–78%, (ii) Oxygen–21%, (iii) about 60°C at Stratopause. Argon–0.93%, (iv) Carbon dioxide–0.03%, • The part of the stratosphere, in which (v) Neon–0.0018%, (vi) Helium–0.0005%, there is a concentration of ozone, is often (vii) Ozone–0.006%, (viii) Hydrogen–0.0005%. called Ozonosphere. Water vapour is the most significant • This is the second layer of the atmosphere. It component of the atmosphere as far as its extends from the Tropopause to about 50 km. effect on weather is concerned although its • Temperature increases due to the absorption quantity varies considerably from practically of the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun by none (0) to up to about 4% by volume. ozone present in this layer. Dust intercepts and reflects incoming • It provides idle flying conditions for large insolation. jet planes. Dust in the atmosphere contributes to the • The end of the Stratosphere is called red and orange colour of sunrise and sunset. the Stratopause.

Structure of the Atmosphere

157

Mesosphere

• Above the stratosphere lies the mesosphere. There are five distinct layers of the • The mesosphere extends to a height of 80 km. atmosphere– (a) Troposphere, (b) Stratosphere, • Here the temperature decreases again, falling as low as –90°C. (c) Mesosphere, (d) Thermosphere, and • The end of this layer is known as the (e) Exosphere. Mesopause. Troposphere • It is considered the coldest layer of the This is the first layer of the atmosphere. It atmosphere. extends to a height of 18 km at the equator Ionosphere and 8 km at the poles. • Ionosphere is located above the mesosphere In this layer temperature decreases with and extends up to about 600 km. height. It contains more than 90% of gases • This layer is also called as ionosphere in the atmosphere. because it contains electrically charged ions At every 165 m, there is a drop of 1°C that reflect the radio waves back to the earth (or 6.4°C per km). This is called Normal Lapse thus making radio communication possible. Rate of Temperature. Tropopause separates Troposphere from Thermosphere Stratosphere. • The zone between the 85 km and 400 km above All weather phenomena such as conden­ the surface is often called thermosphere. In this layer, the temperature increases with sation, precipitation and storms, etc. occur increasing altitude. in the troposphere only. • The upper part of the thermosphere The height at which the temperature stops contains only the lighter gases like helium decreasing is called Tropopause. Here the and hydrogen. temperature may be as low as –58°C.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Insolation is measured with the help of Exosphere and Magnetosphere Pyronometers. • The outermost part of the atmosphere of • The earth’s surface does not absorb all the the earth is called exosphere. energy that it receives. The proportion of • This zone of the atmosphere extends up to the solar radiation reflected from the a height of about 900 km. surface is called Albedo. • T h e o u t e r p a r t o f t h e e x o s p h e r e i s Heat Budget of the Earth called magnetosphere. • The Earth receives energy continuously from the sun, its temperature is almost constant Chemical Composition of the except the long term climate changes. This Atmosphere is because the atmosphere loses an amount • Homosphere up to 90 km: In this region, of heat equal to the gain through insolation. the proportion of various constituents is This mechanism of maintaining the same same throughout. temperature by the atmosphere is called the • Heterosphere: The recent data from the Head Budget or Heat Balance. satellite studies suggested that beyond • If 100 units of energy reach the top of the about 100 km the lightest gases separates atmosphere of the Earth, 14 units are absorbed directly by the atmosphere and 35 out, forming several concentric layers units are lost to space through reflection. around the earth. • The remaining 51 units reach the Earth’s surface and absorbed by the Earth due to Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming which the surface gets heated. • The primary greenhouse gases in the earth’s atmosphere are water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.

• Global Warming is the increase of earth’s average surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from deforestation. This is a type of greenhouse effect. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer • It is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer from Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Kyoto Protocol • The Kyoto protocol is a protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at fighting global warming. • The protocol was initially adopted on December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan and entered to force on February 16, 2005.

Insolations

• Solar radiation that is intercepted by the earth is known as Insolation.

Terrestrial Radiation

• The sun’s energy absorbed by the earth’s surface when radiated out into space is called terrestrial radiation.

Weather and Climate • Weather is the description of the atmospheric conditions of a particular place at a particular time for a short period of time. • Climate is the composite or integrated picture of the weather conditions over a long period of time.

Atmospheric Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure at any point on the surface of the earth due to the weight of the column of air above that point. • Air is an extremely compressible gas having its own weight. The pressure exerted by air due to its weight is called atmospheric pressure on the Earth’s surface.

Influence on the Atmospheric Pressure

Altitude: Air pressure increases, when air descends due to the decrease in volume.

Geography

Temperature: The pressure of air rises, when its temperature falls.

The global pressure belts

159

Isopleth

Line drawn on map along which the value of a particular phenomenon is uniform.

Some Important Isopleths Equatorial Low Pressure Belt • It is located on either side of the geogr­ Isopleth Reaction aphical equator in a zone extending Isobar Equal Pressure between 5°N and 5° S. Isohaline Salinity • It is thermally induced because of the Isohypse Elevation above Sea intense heating of the ground surface by the almost vertical sun rays. Isoneph Cloudiness • It represents the zone of convergence of Isobaths Equal depth in Sea north east and south east trade winds. Isohels Sunshine • This convergence zone is characterised by Isonif Snow light and feeble winds and because of the frequent calm condtion this belt is called as Isocline Slope a belt of calm or doldrums. Isobronts Thunderstorm at the Subtropical High Pressure Belt same time • It extends between 30° to 35° in both Isohyets Rainfall the hemispheres. Isotherms Temperature • This zone of high pressure is also called as Isodapan cost Equal transportation horse latitude. distance • It is dynamically induced as it owes its origin to the rotation of the Earth and sinking and setting down of winds. Winds Subpolar Low Pressure Belt • It extends between 60° to 65° in both the • Wind is the movement of air caused by the uneven heating of the earth by the sun. hemispheres. • The low pressure belt does not appear to Winds System be thermally induced because there is low • The air moves from high pressure to low temperature throughout the year and as pressure. such there should have been high pressure • The imaginary line joining the points having belt instead of low pressure belt. Thus it is same pressure is called isobars. dynamically induced. • The winds blowing parallel to the isobars Polar High Pressure Belt generally at the height of 600 m is called • High pressure persists at the poles through­ geotropic winds. out the year because of the prevalence of very The factors that control the air motion are low temperature all the year round. as follows: Measurement and Units of • Pressure gradient Atmospheric Pressure • Rotation of earth and corriolis force • The mercury barometer is the standard • Centrifugal force. instrument for measuring atmospheric Winds Direction and Related Laws pressure. • Standard sea level pressure is 76 km of • The Coriolis force generated due to the rotation of earth acts as a deflective force to 29.92 inches on this scale. the wind direction. • Orica atmospheric pressure (76 cm of mercury) = 760 mm of Hg = 1013.25 • Because of the Coriolis force, all the winds are deflected to the right in the Northern millibars (mb).

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General Knowledge  2020

latitudes 60° and the poles on both sides Hemisphere while they are deflected to the of the Equator. left in the Southern Hemisphere with respect to the rotating earth. This is referred • These winds blow from the east to form the Polar Easterlies. to as Farrell’s Law. • The Coriolis force is absent along the equator, but increases progressively towards SecondAry wind movements the poles.

Primary movement (Permanent winds)

• Trade winds • Polar winds • Westerllies

Secondary movement

• Cyclone: Tropical and temperate, thunder­ storms and tornado • Anticyclone • Seasonal wind i.e. monsoon • Tertiary movement.

Primary wind movements (permanent winds) Trade Winds

• They blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Equatorial Low Pressure Belt in the tropics between 30° North and 30° South latitudes. • They blow as the N.E. Trades in the Northern Hemisphere and as the S.E. Trades in the Southern Hemisphere.

Westerlies

• They blow from the Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt in the temperate latitudes between 30° and 60°, on either side of the Equator. • They are more constant and stronger in the Southern Hemispheres because there are no large landmasses to interrupt them. • In places they become so strong that these winds are known as the Roaring Forties or the Brave West Winds and the Furious Fifties.

Polar Winds

• They blow from the Polar High Pressure Belt to the Sub-polar Low Pressure Belt between

Cyclones

• Cyclones are the centres of low pressure having increasing pressure outward and closed air circulation from outside towards the central low pressure in such a way that air blows inward in anti-clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere. • Air blows inward in clockwise direction in the Southern hemisphere. Cyclones are mainly of two types: 1. Tropical cyclones, 2. Temperate cyclones. Tropical cyclones • They are found in the trade wind belt between 8°–20° north and south. • They travel from east to west in the easterly wind belt. • Tropical cyclones are much smaller with a diameter of about 200 to 500 km. • They are formed only in the summer. Temperate cyclones • Normally found between 30°–65° north and south in the sub polar frontal zone, where cold polar air mass meets the warm tropical mass. • They move from west to east embedded in the westerly wind belt. • They form over much large area with the diameter 300 to 1500 km. • Temperate cyclones are frontal in nature. • They are formed either over oceans or over the continents. Anticyclone • They are the wind system, which has the highest air pressure at the centre and lowest at the outer margins surrounded by circular isobars where wind blows: ƒƒ from centre to outward in clockwise direction in northern hemisphere. ƒƒ from centre to outward in anti-clockwise direction in southern hemisphere.

Geography

• They are generally associated with rainless fair weather and that is why they are called ‘weatherless phenomena’.

Thunderstorms

• Thunderstorms are local storms chara­ cterised by swift upward movements of air and heavy rainfall with cloud thunder and lightening. • Structurally, thunderstorms consist of several convective cells, which are chara­ cterised by strong updrift of air.

Tornado

• Tornadoes are very strong tropical cyclones of smaller size. In the Mississippi valley (US), they are called Twisters.

Tertiary wind movement (Local winds) Local Winds

161

Jet Stream

• The strong and rapidly moving circumpolar westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a few hundred kilometres width in the upper limit of troposphere is called Jet Stream. • The extent of jet streams narrows down during the summer season because of their northward shifting while these extends up to 20° north latitude.

Humidity

• Humidity of air refers to the contents of the water vapour present in the air at a particular time and place. • Humidity is measured by an instrument called hygrometer. • Absolute humidity: The total weight of moisture content per volume of air at definite temperature is called absolute humidity. • Specific humidity: The mass of the water vapour in grams contained in a kilogram of air and it represents the actual moisture present in a definite air. • Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the amount of water vapour actually present in the air having definite volume and temperature to the maximum amount the air can hold. • Condensation is the change of physical state of matter from gaseous phase into liquefied phase and is the reverse of vapourisation. • When the relative humidity reaches 100% the air is completely saturated. The air temperature is said to be as dew-point. • Smog (Smoke + Fog) is a form of fog that occurs in areas, where the air contains a large amount of smoke. • Fog is made from the droplets of water suspended in the lower layer of the atmosphere.

• Chinook–Hot, dry wind in Rockies, also called ‘Snow eater’ • Foehn–Hot, dry wind in Alps • Khamsin–Hot, dry wind in Egypt • Sirocco–Hot, Moist wind from Sahara to Mediterranean Sea • Solano–Hot, moist wind from Sahara towards Iberian Peninsula • Harmattan–Hot, dry wind blowing outwards from the Interior of west-Africa, also called ‘Guinea Doctor’ • Boro–Cold dry Wind blowing outwards from Hungary to the North of Italy • Mistral–Very cold wind, which blowns down from the Alps over France • Punas–Very cold dry wind blowing down towards the western side of Andes. Clouds • Brickfielder–hot wind in Australia • Purga–Cold wind in Russian Tundra • Clouds are a mass of small water droplets • Levanter–Cold wind is Spain or tiny ice crystals. • Norwester–Hot wind in New zealand There are four groups of clouds: • Santa Ara–Hot wind in Southern California i. High clouds 6000 m to 12000 m in U.S.A. ii. Middle clouds 2100 m to 6000 m Climatic Winds or Periodic Winds iii. Low clouds below 2100 m • Land and sea breeze and the Monsoon winds iv. Clouds of great vertical extent 1500 to are typical examples of periodic winds. 9000 m

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General Knowledge  2020

Types of clouds High Clouds • Cirrus: Cirrus composed of small ice crystals, white wispy and fibrous in appearance. • Cirro Cumulus: Composed of ice crystals, but globular or rippled in appearance.

• Cumulo Nimbus: They have great vertical extent, white or black globular masses, whose rounded tops often spread out in the form of anvil. It is characterised by convectional rain, lightening and thunder.

Precipitation

Middle Clouds • Convectional Rainfall: It occurs due to • Alto Cumulus: Composed of water droplets thermal convection currents caused due to in layers and patches. insolational heating of ground surface. • Alto Stratus: Composed of water droplets • Frontal Rainfall: It occurs due to upward forming sheets of grey or watery looking movement of air caused by convergence of clouds. cold air masses against warm air masses. • Cyclonic Rainfall: When the air is caused Low Clouds to rise upward due to cyclonic circulation, • Strato Cumulus: Large globular masses, the resulting precipitation is called bumpy looking, soft and grey in appearance cyclonic rainfall. forming a pronounced regular and sometimes wavy pattern • Nimbo Stratus: Dark grey and rainy Climate looking, dense and shapeless, often gives Weather refers to the sum total of the continuous rains. atmospheric conditions in terms of Great Vertical Extent temperature, pressure, wind moisture, • Cumulus: Round topped and flat based cloudiness, precipitation and visibility. forming a whitish grey globor mass, consists of individual clouds units. World Climate Types Climatic Zone

Climate type

Rainfall

Natural Vegetation

Equatorial zone 0°–10° N and S

1. Hot, wet equatorial

Rainfall all the year (80 inches)

Equatorial rain forest

Hot zone 10°–30° N and S

2 (a) Tropical Monsoon

Heavy summer rain (60 inches)

Monsoon forest

3. Sudan type

Rain mainly in summer (70 inches)

Savana (tropical grassland)

4. Desert type

Little rain (5 inches)

Desert vegetation scrub

5. Western margin (mediterranean type)

Winter rain (35 inches)

Mediterranian forests

6. Central continental type (steppe type)

Light summer rain (20 inches)

Steppe temperate grassland

   (b) Tropical marine

(a) Saharan type (b) Mid latitude type Warm temperate zone (30°N–45°S)

Geography

Cool temperate zones (45°N–65°S)

Cold zone

163

7. Eastern margin (a) China type (b) Gulf type (c) Natal type

Heavier summer rain (45 inches)

Warm wetforest and bamboo

8. Western margin

Rain in autumn and winter (30 inches)

Deciduous forests

9. Central continental (siberian type)

Light summer rain (25 inches)

Coniferous forests

10. Eastern margin (laurition type)

Moderate summer rain (40 inches)

Mixed forests coniferous and deciduous.

11. Arctic or polar

Very light summer rain (10 inches)

Tundra mosses

12. Mountain climate

Heavy rainfall variable

Alpine fern coniferous

Forests They are of the following types: (a) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests: Such forests are found in the equatorial and the tropical regions with more than 200 cms annual rainfall. The leaves of trees in such forests are very wide. Examples: Red wood, palm, etc. (b) Tropical Semi-Deciduous Forests: Such forests receive rainfall less than 150 cms. Saagwan, saal, bamboo, etc. are found in such forests. (c) Temperate Mixed Forests: Such forests are a mixture of trees and shrubs. Corks, oak, etc. are the major trees of these forests. (d) Coniferous Forests or Triga: These are evergreen forests. The trees in these forests have straight trunk, conical shape with relatively short branches and small needle like leaves. Example: Pine, Fir, etc. (e) Tundra Forests: Such forests are covered with snow. Only Mosses, a few sledges and Lichens grow here in the summer. (f) Mountainous Forests: Vegetation varies according to altitude.

Famous Grassland of the world Grassland Steppe – Prairie – Pampas – Veld – Downs –

Countries Eurasis U.S.A. Argentina South Africa Australia

Hydrosphere Oceans

• There are four oceans. In order of their size, they are: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean and Arctic Ocean.

Pacific Ocean

• It is the deepest Ocean with an average depth of 4,200 m. • The Mariana Trench is the world’s deepest trench with a depth of 11,033 metres (36,201 feet). • Most of the islands of this Ocean are of volcanic or coral origin.

Atlantic Ocean

• The Atlantic Ocean has the longest coastline. • The Atlantic Ocean is the busiest Ocean for trade and commerce.

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• The Atlantic Ocean was formed millions of years ago when a rift opened up in the Gondwanaland and the continents of South America and Africa separated. The separation continues even today and the Atlantic Ocean is still widening.

Indian Ocean

• The Indian Ocean is deeper than the Atlantic Ocean. • It contains numerous continental islands; Madagascar and Sri Lanka are being the largest ones. • Some of the islands of volcanic origin are those of Mauritius, Andaman and Nicobar,

Seychelles, Maldives and Lakshadweep are of coral origin.

Arctic Ocean

• It lies within the Arctic Circle, hence the name Arctic Ocean. • The North Pole lies in the middle of the Arctic Ocean. • Most of the parts of Arctic Ocean remain frozen with thick ice for most of the days every year. • It is the shallowest of all oceans, with an average depth of 1,500 m. • It has the less salinity than all the oceans have.

Trench and their Location Trench

Location

Depth

Mariana Trench

Western Pacific Ocean (Near Philippines and Japan)

10,911m

Tonga Trench

Southern Pacific Ocean (Near New Zealand)

10,882m

Kuril-Kamchatka Trench

Northern Pacific Ocean

10,542m

Philippine Trench

Philippines

10,540m

Kermadec Trench

New Zealand

10,047m

Relief of the Ocean Basin Continental Shelf

• The shallow submerged extension of the continent is called the continental shelf. • Extends to a depth of 100 fathoms (1 fathom =1.8m). • Average width 70 km; average slope 17 feet/ mile or about 1°. • Continental shelf covers 7.5% area of the oceans. It extends over 13.3% of the Atlantic Ocean, 5.7% of Pacific Ocean and 4.2% of Indian Ocean.

Continental Slope

• Extends seawards from the continental shelf. • Depth is 200–2000 fathoms (3660m) • Average slope is 210.5 degrees.

Continental Rise

• Continental rise is an area at the foot of the slope, slightly rising due to the accumulation of debris transported over the slope.

• Oil deposits occur here. • Average slope –0.5° to 1°.

Abyssal or the Deep Sea Plains

• It is the deepest and most extensive part of the oceanic floor. • It covers about 75.9% of total oceanic area. • Average depth 3000 m to 6000 m.

Deeps/Trenches

• Trenches are narrow and steep sides of depressions. • Marina Trench (challenger deep) is the deepest trench in the world situated in the NW Pacific Oceans, near Philippines. It is more than 11 km deep.

Oceanic Ridges

• Oceanic Ridges are formed by the volcanic activity along the spreading boundary of plates. • It is thousand of km long and hundreds of km wide mountain range on the oceanic floor for example: mid oceanic ridges.

Geography

165

• It is formed around an island or in an SeaMounts and Guyouts • A ridge rising more than 100 m above the elliptical form on a submarine platform. Ocean floor is called seamount. • Funafuti atoll of ellice Islands is a famous • The flat topped seamounts are called atoll also found in Lakshadweep and Nicobar. Guyouts.

Submarine Canyons

• Submarine canyons are the deep gorges on the Ocean floor and are restricted to the continental shelves, slopes and rises.

Coral Reefs

• Coral reefs are formed due to accumulation and the compaction of skeletons of lime secreting organisms known as Coral Polyps. • Corals are found mainly in the tropical oceans and sea because they require high mean annual temperature ranging between 20°C to 25°C. • Corals do not live in deeper waters due to lack of sufficient sunlight and oxygen. Coral reef and their location Coral Reef

Location

Great Barrier Reef

Queensland, Australia

Belize Barrier Reef

Belize

New Caledonia Barrier Reef

New Caledonia

Andros Barrier Reef

Bahamas

Red Sea Coral Reef

Red Sea

Pulley Ridge

Florida (USA)

Maldives

Indian Ocean

Raja Ampat Islands

Indonesia

Fringing Reefs

• It develops along the continental margins or along the islands. • These types of reefs are found near Rameshwaram in the Gulf of Mannar.

Barrier Reefs

• Largest coral reefs off the coastal platform, but parallel to them. • The reef lies at a distance away from the coast.

Atoll

• A reef of narrow growing corals of horseshoe shape and crowned with palm trees is called an atoll.

Coral Bleaching

• When corals are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae living in their tissues, causing them to turn known as coral bleaching. Most saline waterbodies Waterbodies

Percentage composition

Lake Assel (Djibuti)

34.8

Lake Van

33

Dead Sea (West Asia)

33.7

Great Salt Lake U. S. A.

32.0

Salinity

• Average salinity in Southern Hemisphere is more than that of Northern hemisphere. • Isohalines represent the salinity distribution at the surface of the sea. These are the lines joining places having an equal degree of salinity. • Poles have minimum salinity because of addition of fresh water in the form of icebergs and excessive snowfall. • Salinity also increases the density of water. • Salinity on an average decreases from equator to poles. Composition of sea water Salt

Percentage composition

Sodium Choride

77.8%

Magnesium Choride

10.9%

Magnesium Sulphate

4.7%

Calcium Sulphate

3.6%

Potassium Sulphate

2.5%

Others

0.5%

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General Knowledge  2020

Controlling Factors of the Oceanic Salinity

• The salinity of oceans and different seas depends on a number of factors such as evaporation, precipitation, influx of the river water, prevailing wind, Ocean currents and sea waves, etc.

Movements of oceanic water

• Waves are the ocillatory movements in water mainly produced by winds manifested by an alternate rise and fall of the sea furface. • Seismic waves or Tsunamis are waves caused by earthquakes volcanic eruptions in the sea bottom.

Ocean current

• An Ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water generated by the forces acting upon it, such as breaking waves, wind, coriolis effect, temperature and salinity difference and tides caused by the gravitation pull of the moon and the Sun. • Ocean currents circulate in clockwise direction in Northern hemisphere and in anticlockwise direction in southern hemisphere. 1. Warm Currents: The Ocean currents flowing from lower latitude to higher latitude are called as warm currents. 2. Cold Currents: The Ocean currents flowing from higher latitude to lower latitude are called as cold currents.

• West Wind Drift: It flows towards Alaska. • Californian Current: It is an extension of Alaskan currents. It joins finally the North Equatorial current and completes clockwise circulation of water.

Currents of South Pacific Ocean Warm Currents • East Australian Current or Great Barrier Current: It flows towards East coast of Australia from equator towards pole. • South Equatorial Current: It originates due to south-east trade winds and flows westwards and bifurcates near New Guinea. • Counter Equatorial Current: It extends up to Panama Bay. It flows exactly on equator from West to East. Cold Currents • Peruvian Current (Humboldt Current): It flows from South towards equator on the coast of Chile and Peru. • West Wind Drift: It flows from Tasmania to Chile coast of South America.

Currents of North Atlantic Ocean

Warm Currents • North Equatorial Current: It is present between equator and 10° N. • Cayenne Current: It flows adjacent to French Guinea and enters into Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. • Florida Current: Cayenne current near Currents of North Pacific Ocean Florida (US Coast) is called Florida current. Warm Currents • North Equatorial Current: It flows west­ • Antilles Current: It flows to the East of West Indies and other islands. wards from the western coast of Mexico • Gulf Stream: It flows from US coast towards to Philippines. North West Europe under the influence of • Kuroshio Current: It is an extension of North Equatorial Current near Japan Coast. westerly winds. It flows towards north. • North Atlantic Drift: Gulf Stream bifurcates • Alaska Current: It flows along the coast into– of British Columbia and the Alaska i. North Atlantic Drift (warm), Peninsula. ii. West Wind Drift (cold) and Canaries current (cold). Cold Currents • Oyashio Current: It flows down from Bering Cold Currents Sea towards Japan from North Pole and it • Labrador Current: It originates in Baffin joins Kuroshio currents. Bay and Davis Strait and merges with Gulf • Okhotsk Current and Kuril: Okhotsk joins Stream near Newfoundland. Newfoundland Kuroshio Current to the North of Japan.

Geography

167

is a famous zone of fishing, commonly Tides known as Grand Bank. • The rise and fall of the sea level as a result • Armiger Current or Greenland Current: It of the forces between the earth, the moon flows between Greenland and Iceland and and the sun is called a tide. merges with North Atlantic drift. • The interval between two tides is 12 hours • Canaries Current: It flows along the Western and 26 minutes. coast of North Africa between Madeira Spring-Tides Caps Verde and it joins North equatorial • When the earth, the moon and the sun are current. in a straight line the Sun enhances the • West Wind Drift: It flows towards UK. gravitational pull of the Moon, creating a Currents of South Atlantic Ocean condition of higher high tides and lower low tides known as spring tides. Warm Currents • South Equatorial Current: It flows between Neap Tides the equator and 10°S. • When the sun and moon are at right angles • Brazilian Current: It flows to the east coast to the earth, the sun partially contracts the of Brazil from equator towards pole. pull of the moon, producing lower high tides Cold Currents typical of a Neap tide. • Falkland Current: It flows along the South-East coast of South America from Continents of the World south to north. • Benguela Current: It flows from south to • Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe, Australia and Antarctica are the north near the ‘Cape of Good hope’. seven continents. • West Wind Drift: It is continue of Brazilian and Falkland current. Asia • Guinea Current: It flows near coast of Guinea (Africa). General Introduction to Asia •

• • • • •

Currents of the Indian Ocean The asiatic monsoon influences the currents of the north Indian ocean, while the currents of south Indian Ocean are influenced by the atmosphere’s anti cyclonic circulation. North equatorial current: The current flows from east to west and upon reaching the east coast of Africa, a good portion turns southward, crosses the equator and becomes the mozambique currrent. Mozambique current: The mozambique current flows south along the east coast of Africa from the vicinity of the equator to about 35°S where it becomes agulhas stream. Agulhas stream: The agulhas stream flows westward along the southern west of madagascar and joins the Mozambique current along the east african coast. West wind drift current North-east monsoon drift South-west monsoon drift South equatorial current Somalia current

• It covers about one-third of the land surface of the world. • It contains about 60% of the world population. • This vast continent comprises the greatest diversity in terms of physical features, climate, vegetation, wildlife and people. • It has 49 and 5 disputed countries • Latitude: 10°S and 80°N. • Longitude: 25°E and 170°W. • Area 44579000 km2.

Important Information about Asia • Caspian Sea is the world’s largest lake and five times larger than the Lake Superior. It separates Europe from Asia. • Dast-e-Kavir is the largest salt desert of the world situated in the Northern Iran. • Lop Nor Lake in China is a site for numerous nuclear tests. • Hwang Ho is called as China’s Sorrow. • Amur River forms the boundary between Russia and China.

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General Knowledge  2020

• Yangtze Kiang is the longest river of Asia. • Mekong river flows through China, ThailandLaos border, Cambodia and Vietnam to South China Sea. • Laos is the only landlocked country in South-East Asian peninsula. • Group of islands is called an Archipelago. Indonesia is the largest archipelago in the  world. • Irrawaddy River is known as the lifeline of Myanmar. It falls into Gulf of Martaban. • Lake Van of Turkey is the most saline waterbody in Asia. • Japan is the most industrialised nation of Asia. • Myanmar is called land of mountains and rivers. • Pakistan is called country of canals. • Japan is called land of Rising Sun. • Dead Sea, the third saltiest waterbody in the world, is a landlocked sea. It lies between Israel and Jordan. • Osaka is called the Manchester of Japan. • It has the coldest place, Votok. Antarctica has winter temperature of–89°C. Jacobabad in Sindh is the hottest place on the Earth. • Mausynram, Cherrapunji (India) has the world’s highest average rainfall of 2600 cm. • Asia has the world’s deepest fresh water lake, i.e. Baikal Lake (Russia). • Higest point: mt. Everest (8848m). • Lowest point: Dead Sea (396m). • It has the largest delta ‘Sunderbans’ the most fertile river valleys. • Asia has been the cradle of ancient civili­ zations like the Mesopotamian Civilization, the Indus Civilization and the Chinese Civilization which sustained in the fertile river valleys of Asia. • Asia has the privilege of being the birthplace of major religions of the world Judaism, Hinduism, Christianity, Islam, Taoism, Shintoism, Jainism, Sikhism, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism, etc. • Asia wholly lies in the Northern Hemisphere. Latitude: It lies between 10°S and 80°N latitudes, i.e. it spans over 90° of latitudes. Longitude: It lies almost entirely in the Eastern Hemisphere.

• Large longitudinal extent brings about a difference of 11 hours between the local times of the easternmost part and the westernmost part of Asia.

Africa

• • •

• •

Highest Point: Kilimanjaro (5895 metres). Lowest Point: Lake Assol (–156.1 metres). Plateaus: The entire continent is a plateau. It is the second largest continent after Asia and about nine times the size of India. Africa belongs to all four hemispheres. It is joined to Asia by the narrow Isthmus of Suez and separated from Eurasia at three different points (Strait of Gibraltar, Suez Canal and the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb). It is the only continent, which is crossed by Tropic of Cancer, Equator and Tropic of Capricorn. It is also called as Dark Continent.

Important Information about Africa • Lake Victoria is the largest lake of Africa, which is located between Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania. The equator passes through it. • Nile River is the longest river in the world and lifeline of Egypt. • Congo River crosses the equator twice. • The Zambezi River includes the Victoria fall, one of the largest falls in the world. It makes the natural political boundary between Zambia and Zimbabwe. • The Orange River forms the natural boundary between South Africa and Namibia. • The Limpopo River crosses the Tropic of Capricorn twice and it separates South Africa from Botswana and Zimbabwe.

North America

Highest Point: Meckinley (6,194 metres). Lowest Point: Death Valley (–85.9 metres).

Extension

• It is the 3rd largest continent after Asia and Africa. • It is separated from the easternmost tip of Siberia by the Bering Strait. • 49° Latitude parallel forms the boundary between Canada and USA and 100° W

Geography

longitude divides the North America into more or less two equal parts. Important Information about North America • Canada has the longest coastline in the world. • The Prairie region of North America is ideally suited for the cultivation of wheat. • Lake Superior is the largest sweet water lake in the world. • Canada is the largest producer of newsprint in the world. • The Panama Canal connects Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean. By sung Panama Canal, the distance from New York to San Francisco can be shortened to nearly 23,200 km.

South America

• • • •

Highest Point: Aconcagua (6960 m). Lowest Point: Valdes Peninsula (–39.9 m). Paraguay and Bolivia are the only landlocked countries. Pampas is the most fertile region of South America and Alfa-Alfa grasses are found here. It is the fourth largest continent. South America as well as Mexico, Central America and West Indies are collectively known as Latin America.

Important Information about South America • It contains the world’s highest waterfall, i.e. Angel falls in Venezuela in Orinoco River. • It contains the world’s second longest river after Nile and the largest river by volume, i.e. Amazon River. • The longest mountain range of the world, i.e. the Andes lies in South America. • Moreover, the driest place on Earth, i.e. Atacama desert, the largest rain forest, i.e. the Amazon rain forest, the highest capital city, i.e. Lapaz (Bolivia), the highest commercially navigable lake, i.e. Lake Titicaca are situated in South America. • Llanos and Campos are the Savanna grassland in South America. Selvas are the equatorial rain forests of Amazon basin. • Brazil has the world’s largest reserves of iron in Serra Dos Carajas hills. • Brazil is also known as the ‘coffee bowl of the world’, because it is the largest producer of coffee.

169

• Brazil is the only country through which both equator and one of the tropics (Tropic of Capricorn) passes.

Europe

• Highest Point: Mt. Elbrus (5,642 metres). • Lowest Point: Caspian Sea (–28.0 metres). • Greenland, the world’s largest island belongs to Denmark. • Wheat is the most important crop of Europe. • The Ruhr in Germany is the biggest and richest coal field of Europe. Other coal fields in Germany are Saar and Saxony. • It is the second smallest continent in the world, by area, after Australia. • Baltic States: It is a group of three countries namely Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. • Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark are collectively called as Scandinavian countries. • The world’s most northerly capital is Reykjavik. Important Information about Europe • Copenhagen, capital of Denmark is known as the key to the Baltic. • Finland is known as the land of forests and lakes. • The continental shelf areas around Europe including Dogger Bank are rich in fish. • United Kingdom is the name given to the combination of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Great Britain consists of England, Scotland and Wales. • Russia is the largest country of the world and the highest populated country of Europe. • Vatican City is in Rome, Italy. It is the smallest country of the world both in terms of area and population.

Australia

• Australia is an inland continent. • Highest Point: Puncak Jaya (4,884 metres) in an island of New Guinea. • Lowest Point: Lake Eyre (–15.8 metres). • It is the smallest continent of the world. It lies entirely in the Southern hemisphere. The Tropic of Capricorn runs almost through the middle of the continent and divides the continent in two equal parts.

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• It is the only continent that is also a country. Important Information about Australia • Australia is known as the ‘Forgotten Land’. • Australia is the largest producer of Bauxite. • Largest city of Australia is Sydney. • Great Barrier Reef is the world’s longest coral Reef and is located in the NorthEast of Australia. The largest lake of Australia is Eyre. • The highest peak of New Zealand is Mt. Cook.

Antarctica

• Ronald Amundsen was the first man to reach geographical South Pole in Antarctica. • It is called as the continent for science. • Mt. Erebus is the only active volcano on Antarctica. • Mt. Vinson (5140 m) is the highest peak of Antarctica. • It is the only continent, which is completely frozen. It is, therefore, known as White Continent.

Some Important Facts World Continents Continents

Biggest Country

Highest Peak

Longest River

Asia

China

Mt. Everest (8850 m)

Yangtze Kiang

Africa

Sudan

Mt. Kilimanjaro (5895 m)

Nile

Australia

Australia

Mt. Kosciuszko (2228 m)

Darling

Antarctica

Vinson Massif (5140 m)

North America

Canada

Mt. Mckinley (6194 m)

Mississippi Missouri

South America

Brazil

Mt. Aconcagua (6960 m)

Amazon

Europe

Russia

Mt. Elbrus (5642 m)

Ob

Principal Rivers of the World River

Origin

Length (m)

Falls in

Nile

Victoria Lake

6,650

Mediterranean Sea

Amazon

Andes (Peru)

6,428

Atlantic Ocean

Yangtze

Tibetan Kiang Plateau

6,300

China Sea

Mississippi Missouri

Itaska Lake (USA)

6,275

Gulf of Mexico (USA)

Yenisei

Tannu-Ola Mts.

5,539

Arctic Ocean

Huang Ho

Kunlun Mts.

5,464

Gulf of Chibli

Ob

Altai Mts.

5,410

Russia Gulf of Ob

Congo

Lualaba and Luapula rivers

4,700

Atlantic Ocean

Amur

North-east

4,444

China Sea of Okhotsk

Lena

Baikal Mts.

4,400

Laptev Sea

Mekong

Tibetan Highlands

4,350

South China Sea

Mackenzie

Great Slave Lake

4,241

Beaufort Sea

Niger

Guinea

4,200

Gulf of Guinea

Major Lakes of the World Highest Lake

Lake Titicaca in Bolivia

Largest Saline Water Lake

Lake Caspian Sea

Geography Deepest Lake Largest Lake Largest Fresh Water Lake India’s Largest Lake

171

Lake Baikal in Siberia Caspian Sea Lake Superior Chilka Lake in Orissa

Principal Plateaus of the World Plateau

Situation

Plateau of Colombia

USA

Plateau of Madagascar

Madagascar

Plateau of Alaska North

West North America

Plateau of Bolivia

Andes Mountain

Great Basin Plateau

South of Colombia Plateau, USA

Colorado Plateau

South of Great Basin Plateau, USA

Tibetan Plateau

Between Himalayas and Quinloo Mountains

Deccan Plateau

Southern India

Arabian Plateau South

West Asia

Plateau of Brazil Central

Eastern South America

Plateau of Mexico

Mexico

Oceans

Area (sq.km)

Oceans of the World Important Straits of the World Greatest Depth

Pacific

16,62,40,000

Mariana Trench

Straits

Area

Waterbodies Joined

Atlantic

8,65,60,000

Puerto Rico Trench

Indian

7,34,30,000

Java Trench

Bab-alMandeb

Arabia and Africa

Red Sea and Arabian Sea

Arctic

1,32,30,000

Bering

Alaska and Asia

Arctic Ocean and Bering Sea

Bosphorus

Turkey

Black Sea and Marmara Sea

Dover

England and Europe

North Sea and Atlantic Ocean

Florida

Florida and Bahamas Islands

Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean

Gibralter

Spain and Africa

Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic Ocean

Malacca

India and Indonesia

Java Sea and Bay of Bengal

Palk

India and Sri Lanka

Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean

Magellan

Chile

South Pacific and South Atlantic Ocean

Sunda

Indonesia

Java Sea and Indian Ocean

Major Peninsulas of the World Peninsula

Area (sq. km)

Arabia

32,50,000

Southern India

20,72,000

Alaska

15,00,000

Labrador

13,00,000

Scandinavia

8,00,000

Iberian

5,84,000

Major Gulfs of the World Name

Area (sq. km.)

Gulf of Hudson

12,33,000

Gulf of Mexico

15,44,000

Gulf of St. Lawrence

2,37,000

Gulf of California

1,62,000

Arabian Gulf

2,38,000

English Channel

89,900

General Knowledge  2020

172

Smallest and Biggest Countries

Bonn

Rhine

Germany

Budapest

Danube

Hungary

Bristol

Avon

UK

Buenos Aires

Laplata

Argentina

Chittagong

Majyani

Bangladesh

China

Canton

Si-Kiang

China

Indonesia

USA

Cairo

Nile

Egypt

Brazil

Brazil

Chung King

Yang-tse-king

China

Pakistan

Australia

Cologne

Rhine

Germany

Bangladesh

India

Dandzing

Vistula

Germany

Dresden

Elbe

Germany

Dublin

Liffy

Ireland

Hamburg

Elbe

Germany

Kabul

Kabul

Afghanistan

Karachi

Indus

Pakistan

Khartoum

Confluence of Blue and White Nile

Sudan

Biggest Nations (Population-wise)

Biggest Nations (Area-wise)

China

Russia

India

Canada

USA

Nigeria

Argentina

Russia

Kazakhstan

Japan

Sudan

Smallest Nations (Population-wise)

Smallest Nations (Area-wise)

Vatican City

Vatican City

Tuvalu

Monaco

Nauru

Nauru

Lahore

Ravi

Pakistan

Palau

Tuvalu

Leningrad

Neva

Russia

San Marino

San Marino

Lisbon

Tagus

Portugal

Monaco

Liechtenstein

Liverpool

Messey

England

Liechtenstein

Marshall Islands

London

Thames

England

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Saint Kitts and Nevis

Moscow

Moskva

Russia

Antigua and Barbados

Maldives

Montreal

St. Lawrence

Canada

Dominica

Malta

Nanking

Yang-tse-kiang

France

New Orleans

Mississipi

USA

New York

Hudson

USA

Ottawa

Ottawa

Canada

Important Cities on River Banks (World) City

River

Country

Adelaide

Torrens

Australia

Paris

Seine

France

Amsterdam

Amsel

Netherlands

Philadelphia

Delaware

USA

Alexandria

Nile

Egypt

Perth

Swan

Australia

Ankara

Kazil

Turkey

Prague

Vitava

Bangkok

Chao Praya

Thailand

Czech Republic

Basra

Eupharates and Iraq Tigris

Quebec

St. Lawrence

Canada

Rome

Tiber

Italy

Baghdad

Tigris

Iraq

Rotterdam

New Mass

The Netherlands

Berlin

Spree

Germany

Stalingrad

Volga

Russia

Geography

173

Shanghai

Yang-tse-kiang

China

Manchester of Japan

Osaka

Sidney

Darling

Australia

Pillars of Hercules

Strait of Gibraltar

Saint Louis

Mississipi

USA

Pearl of the Antilles

Cuba

Tokyo

Arakava

Japan

Playground of Europe

Switzerland

Vienna

Danube

Austria

Quaker City

Philadelphia

Warsaw

Vistula

Poland

Queen of the Adriatic

Venice

Washington DC

Potomac

USA

Roof of the World

Yangoon

Irrawaddy

Myanmar

The Pamirs, Central Asia

Rose Pink City

Jaipur Cuba

World’s Geographical Surnames Surname

Name

Sugar Bowl of the World

Bengal’s Sorrow

Damodar River

Venice of the North

Stockholm

Blue Mountains

Nilgiri Hills

Windy City

Chicago

China’s Sorrow

Hwang Ho

Whiteman’s Grave

Guinea Coast of Africa

Emerald Isle

Ireland

Yellow River

Huang Ho (China)

Eternal City

Rome

Land of Cakes

Scotland

Empire City

New York

Land of Golden Fleece

Australia

Forbidden City

Lhasa (Tibet)

Land of Maple Leaf

Canada

Garden City

Chicago

Land of Morning Calm

Korea

Gate of Tears

Strait of Bab-elMandeb

Land of Midnight Sun

Norway

Land of the Thousand Lakes

Finland

Gateway of India

Mumbai

Gift of the Nile

Egypt Aberdeen (Scotland)

Land of the Thunderbolt

Bhutan

Granite City City of Sky-scrapers

New York

Land of White Elephant

Thailand

City of Seven Hills

Rome

Land of Five Rivers

Punjab

Land of Thousand Elephants

Laos

Land of Rising Sun

Japan

Loneliest Island

Tristan De Gunha (Mid-Atlantic)

City of Dreaming Spires Oxford City of Palaces

Kolkata

City of Golden Gate

San Francisco

City of Magnificent Buildings

Washington D.C.

City of Eternal Springs

Quito (S. America)

Hermit Kingdom

Korea

Herring Pond

Atlantic Ocean

Holy Land

Jerusalem

Island Continent

Australia

Island of Cloves

Zanzibar

Isle of Pearls Key to the Mediterranean

Famous Tribes of the World Abhors

People of Mongolian blood living between Assam and Eastern tribes

Afridis

Tribes residing in the North-West Frontier (Pakistan)

Bantus

Negroes living in the Central and South Africa

Bahrein (Persian Gulf)

Boers

The Dutch settlers of South Africa

Gibralter

Cossacks

People living in the southern and eastern frontiers of Russia

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Eskimos

Inhabitants of Greenland and of Arctic regions

Flemings

A term used for the people of Belgium

Hamites

Inhabitants of North-West Africa

Khirgiz

People living in Central Asia

Kurds

Tribes living in Kurdistan (Iraq)

Magyars

Inhabitants of Hungary

Maoris

Inhabitants of New Zealand

Negroes

Mostly found in Africa

Pygmies

Short-sized people found in Congo basin in Africa

Red Indians

Original inhabitants of North America

Semites

Caucasian people of ancient times

Zulus

People of South Africa living in certain part of Nata

Important Boundaries Durand Line

Pakistan and Afghanistan

MacMohan Line

India and China

Radcliffe Line

India and Pakistan

Maginot Line

France and Germany

Oder Niesse Line

Germany and Poland

Hindenberg Line

Poland and Germany (at the time of First World War)

38th Parallel

North and South Korea

49th Parallel

USA and Canada

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Indian Geography The Indian Subcontinent • Mainland of the Indian Subcontinent, comprising India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan extends between 8°4’N and 37°9’N latitudes and between 68°7’E and 97°15’E longitudes.

Size and Extent of Subcontinent

• From North to South this subcontinent stretches over 3,200 km and from east to west it is 3,000 km. 82°30’ E meridian helps in calculating the Indian Standard Time (IST) which is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of the Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). • This very meridian (82½°E) dictates time in Sri Lanka and Nepal also.

Political Divisions of India

• India is divided into 29 States and 7 Union Territories.

Position and Extent of India and its Locational Advantage

• India forms part of the large continental land mass to Eurasia. • It is located on one of the peninsulas of Southern Asia. The country extends from Kashmir in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. • The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal are situated on western and eastern side of peninsular India respectively. • The latitudinal extent of the country is from 8°4’ north to 37°6’ north. • • • •

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Land frontiers: 15200 km. Coastline of mainland India-6100 km. Total coastline: 7516.6 km. Number of states: 29 Number of union territories: 7. Number of islands in the Bay of Bengal-204 Number of islands in the Arabian sea-43 Land neighbours (7): Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar. States with longest coastline: Gujarat. Active volcano: Barren Island in Andaman and nicobar. Southernmost point; Indira point in great Nicobar. Southernmost tip main land: Kanyakumari. northernmost point: Indira Col Jammu & Kashmir. Westenmost point: West of ghaur mota in Gujarat Easternmost point: Kibithu in Arunachal pradesh. The Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) passes through the middle of the country. The location of the country is in the northern and the eastern hemispheres. Indian states situated on the border

Country

Indian States

Pakistan (4)

Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Jammu and Kashmir

Afghanistan (1) Jammu and Kashmir China (5)

Jammu and Kashmir, Uttrakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh

Nepal (5)

Uttar Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Sikkim

Basic information

Latitudinal extent: 8°4’ North to 37°6’ North. Longitudinal extent: 68°7’ East to 97°25’ East. North-south extent: 3214 km. East-west extent: 2933 km.

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Bhutan (4)

Sikkim, West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh

Bangladesh (5)

West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram

Size of India (In Terms of Area and Population)

• India is the seventh largest country (in terms of area) in the world. • The area of India is nearly equal to the area of the continent of Europe excluding Russia. • India is eight times as large as Japan. India ranks as the second largest country in terms of population (next of China only). • India contains about one-sixth of the total population of the world.

Physical Features Physical Divisions of the Indian Subcontinent

• A chain of high mountains radiate out from the Pamir Knot which lies just in the north of India. • In these mountains the Hindukush, the Suleiman and the Kirthar in the east and the Himalayas in the west separate the Indian subcontinent from rest of Asia. • Indian subcontinent can be divided into following physical divisions: ƒƒ The Great Mountain wall of the North. ƒƒ The Great Northern Plains. ƒƒ The Great Peninsular Plateau. ƒƒ The Coastal Plains. ƒƒ The Great Indian Desert. ƒƒ The Island Groups.

Himalayas • Himalayas are young fold mountains of tertiary period, which were folded over Tethys Sea due to inter-continental collision. • They stretch from the Indus River in the West to the Brahmaputra River in the East. • The Himalayas, the highest mountain wall of the world, are situated on the northern boundary of India like an arc. • Mount Everest, the highest peak in the word, lies in these mountains in Nepal.

• The total length is about 2500 km with verying width 240 to 320 km and a total area of 5000 km2.

Divisions of the Himalayas

• The Himalayas consist of three parallel mountain ranges: (i) The Greater Himalayas (ii) The Lesser Himalayas and (iii) The Outer Himalayas.

The Greater Himalayas (or Himadri)

• Northern most part of the Himalayan range; it is the world’s highest part with an average altitude of 6,100 metres above the sea level. • It includes world’s highest peak, Mt. Everest (8,850 m) located in Nepal. It is known as Sagarmatha in Nepal and Chomolangma in China. • Kangchenjunga that lies in Sikkim is the second highest peak of the greater Himalayas. • Zaskar range is situated on the western part of Greater Himalayas. It includes Nanga Parbat (8, 126 metres of the KashmirHimachal region) and Nepal Dhaulagiri (8,172 metres). • This is the loftiest of the three ranges of Himalayas. Mount Everest lies in this range. Location

Important Passes

Jammu and Kashmir

Burzi-La, Joji-La Karakorm Banihal Rohtang

Himachal Pradesh

Bara La, Cha-La, Shipki-La

Uttarakhand

Niti-La, Lipu-Lekh-La

Sikkim

Jelep-La, Nathu-La

Arunachal Pradesh

Bomdi-La

The Lesser Himalayas (or the Himachal Himalayas)

• South of the Greater Himalayas, the range also lies parallel to it from west to east.

Geography

• Pirpanjal range (Jammu and Kashmir): It is longest range of the middle Himalaya. • Dhauladhar range (Himachal Pradesh); Missouri range (Uttarakhand); Nagtibba range (Nepal); Mahabharat range (Nepal). • I m p o r t a n t h i l l r e s o r t s a r e S h i m l a , Ranikhet, Almora, Nainital and Darjeeling, Dharmashala, Dalhousie, Darjeeling, Mussorrie. • Average height of the middle Himalayas is 3700–4500 km.

The Outer Himalayas (or Shiwaliks)

• This is the southernmost, the newest and the third parallel range of the Himalaya. • Its breadth is only 10 to 50 kms. Shiwalik range is broader in the west. • Shiwaliks are characterised by fault scraps anticlinals, crest and synclinical hills. • Average elevation is 900–1200m.

Trans Himalayan Zones

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• The Ganga plains form the largest lowland drained by the Ganga and its tributaries. • The Yamuna is the most important tributary of the Ganga. • The Ghaghara, the Gandak, the Kosi and the Tista are other tributaries of the Ganga. • The Sone and the Damodar are tributaries of the Ganga while the Chambal and the Betwa are tributaries of the Yamuna from the peninsular plateau. • It extends from west to east for 2400 km having an average width in between 150–300 km. • It is composed of Bhangar (old alluvium), Khadar (new alluvium) in river bed, Bhabar (porous grave) ridden plain at the foothills of Shiwalik. Difference between bhangar and khadar Bhangar

Khadar

These are low plains composed of older alluvium.

The deposits of fresh alluvium every year brought by Himalyan rivers makes this belt of northern plains.

• This zone lies to the North of the Great Himalayas. • Trans Himalayans, also known as Tethis It contains calcareous It does not contain Himalayans are the part of Eurasian Plate deposits locally calcareous deposits of and are formed of sedimentary rocks. known as kankar. calcium. • Some important ranges of this zone are Karakoram and Ladakh, etc. The highest Difference between bhabar and terai peak in region is K2 or Godwin Austin or Bhabar Terai Qagir (8,611m in Pak occupied Kashmir). Bhabar is a long Terai is a broad long Mount K2 is also the 2nd highest peak of the narrow plain along zone at south of bhabar world and the highest peak of India, located the foot hills. plain. in Karakoram rage. • Mt. Rakaposhi is the highest peak in Ladakh It is pebble studded It is a marshy damp zone of porous beds. area covered with dense range and the steepest peak in the world. forest. • Siachin glacier is the largest glacier of the world outside the polar region (more than 72 It is 9–16 km wide. It is 20–30 km wide. km) and is located in Nubra valley. • Indus river, flowing between Ladakh and Sub Divisions of Great Plain Zaskar ranges from south east to north • Punjab Haryana plain: It extends from west, originates from Chamayung dung Punjab in the west to Yamuna (Haryana) in glacier near Kailash. the east. They are composed of dhaya (heavily gullied bluffs and bets (Khadar plains) The Great Northern Plains • Rajasthan plain: Thar desert is the • The northern plains are divided into three westernmost region of the great Indian plain. sub-divisions. These are the Punjab and A semi arid plain lying to the east of the Haryana plains, the Ganga plains and the Brahmaputra valley. Thar desert is known as Rajasthan bager.

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The luni is the only south west flowing river of the region. • brahmaputra plain: A low level plain formed by Brahmaputra river system is situated between eastern Himalayas in the north and lower Ganga plain and indo-bangladesh border in the west. • The eastern and western ghats demarcate the eastern and western edge of the deccan plateau. • •

• •

• The Narmada which flows through a rift valley divides the region into two parts— the central highland in the north and the deccan plateau in the south. • The Anamudi or Anaimudi (2,695 metres) is the highest peak of the peninsula. • The western edge of the plateau rises steeply from the Arabian Sea to form the Western Ghats (which includes the Sahyadri). • The eastern edge of the plateau is known as the Eastern Ghats. • The north-western region of the Deccan Meghalaya Plateau plateau is covered by nearly horizontal The plateau is separated from main block sheets of lava. This region is called of the peninsular plateau by a gap called ‘Deccan trap region’. Garo-Raj Mahal gap. • The Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Krishna From east to west, the plateau comprises and the Cauvery are the major rivers that Garo Khasi, Jaintia and Mikir hills. have built deltas along the coast. • The Narmada and the Tapti rivers are west Bundelkhand upland flowing. It is composed of granites and gneiss. It is located to the south of Yamuna river • These rivers do not have deltas. between madhya Bharat pathor and Plateaus uplands of peninsular vindhyan scrap land.

Chottanagpur Plateau

• It is composed mainly of gondwana rocks with patches of granites and gneisses and deccan lavas. • It covers mostly Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and purulia of West Bengal.

Doab

• Punjab-Haryana plain is drained by five rivers and the intervening area between the rivers is known as doab. from South to North doabs are as follows: Doab

Region

Bist Doab

Between Beas and Sutlej

Bari Doab

Between Beas and Ravi

Rachna Doab

Between Ravi and Chenab

Chai Doab

Between Chenab and Jhelum

Sind Sagar Doab

Between jhelum and Indus

The Great Peninsular Plateau

• It is composed of old crystalline igneous and metamorphic rocks. • It covers a total area of 16000 km2.

India

Central Highland

• Central highland lie to the north of the narmada river covering a major area of the Malwa plateau. • The aravalis range is bounded by the central highland on the north-west and vindhyan range on the south.

Deccan Plateau

• Deccan Plateau is a triangular land lying to the south of the river Narmada. • I s c o m p r i s e s M a h a r a s h t r a p l a t e a u , karnataka plateau and the Telangana and Rayalseema plateau.

Hill Ranges of the Peninsula Aravali Range

• Aravalis are one of the world’s oldest fold mountains running in north-east to southeast direction from Delhi to Palampur in Gujarat. It is an example of relict mountain. Gurushikhar is the highest peak of Aravali.

Geography

Vindhyan Range

• This range acts as a water-divide between Ganga system and the river system of south India.

Satpura Range

• It is a series of seven mountains running in East-West direction to the South of Vindhya and in between the Narmada and Tapi. • It comprises Rajpipla hills, Mahadeo hills and Maikal Range. • Satpuras are fold mountains and Dhupgarh is its highest peak.

Eastern Ghats

• It comprises the discontinuous and low hills that are highly eroded by the rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, etc.

Western Ghats

• The Western Ghats are locally known by different names such as Sahyadri in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and Annamalai hills, Cardamom hills in Kerala. • It runs from the south of the valley of river Tapti to Kanyakumari. • There are three important passes in the Sahyadris. (a) Thalghat (between Mumbai and Pune). (b) Palghat (between Palakkad and Coim­ batore). (c) Bhorghat (between Mumbai and Nasik). • The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri hills.

The Coastal Plains • Narrow steeps of flat land on the eastern and western coasts are known as the East Coastal Plain and the West Coastal Plain respectively.

The West Coastal Plain

179

• Its northern part from Gujarat to Goa is called Konkan, while southern part from Goa to Kanyakumari is known as Malabar. • Important ports developed on its coast from north to south are: Kandla, Mumbai, New Jawahar Port, Mumbai, Marmagao, Mangalore and Cochin. This plain is sub-divided into i. Kuchchh Plains: An Island surrounded by sea and lagoons. ii. Kathiawar Plains: It extends from rann of kuchchh to daman in the south. iii. Gujarat Plains: East to kuchchh and kathiawar formed by the river Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati. iv. Konkan Coast: It extends from Daman to Goa for a distance of about 500 km. v. Karnataka or Conora Coast: It extends from Goa to Mangalore in narrow belt. vi. Malabar Coast/Kerala Coast: It extends between Mangalore and Kanyakumari. The back-waters, locally Kayals, are the shallow lagoons.

The East Coastal Plain

• This broader coastal plain spreads along the Bay of Bengal from Orissa in the north to Kanyakumari in the south. • Its northern part is known as Northern Circar plains and the southern part is called Coromandel Coast. • Chilka and Pulicat Lakes are fine examples of lagoons on our east coast.

The Great Indian Desert

• It lies to the west of the Aravali range. • This desert does not get much rain as the Aravali range run parallel to the southwestern monsoon winds. • It is in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal current.

The Island Groups

• It is about 1500 km long from Surat to (i) Andaman and Nicobar Group Cape Camorin. • Ten degree channel separates Andaman • This plain which lies between the Arabian group from Nicobar. Duncan passage Sea and the Western Ghats spreads from lies between South Andaman and Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari Little Andaman group. in the south.

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(ii) Lakshadweep Group

• Minicoy is the largest and southernmost island of this group. • Minicoy is separated from rest of the Lakshadweep by Nine degree Channel. • Eight degree channel separates Lakshadweep group from Maldives.

Drainage system of India • 90% of land water drains into the Bay of Bengal and the rest drains into the Arabian Sea. • Those Himalayan rivers, which originated before the formation of Himalaya, are known as Antecedent rivers, such as–Indus, Brahmaputra and Sutlej. In India the rivers have been divided into two main groups: (i) Himalayan rivers, (ii) Peninsular rivers.

• Himalayan rivers: The Himalyan river system is divided into three major river systems.

The Indus System • The Indus, also known as Sindhu, is the westernmost Himalayan river in India. • It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu in the Tibetan region near Mansarovar Lake. • In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s mouth. • In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are Zanskar, Dras, Gilgit, etc. • The most important tributaries which join Indus at various places are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. • According to Indus Water Treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can utilise only 20% of the total discharge of Indus, Jhelum and Chenab.

Indus River system River

Source

length (km)

Falls into

Indus

Near Mansarovar Lake

2,880

Arabian Sea

Jhelum

Verinag

724

Chenab

Chenab

Bara Lacha Pass

1,180

Indus

Ravi

Near Rohtang Pass

725

Chenab

Beas

Near Rohtang Pass

460

Sutlej

Sutlej

Mansarovar Rakas Lake

1,450

Chenab

The Ganga System

• The Ganga system is the second major drainage system of India. • It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarakhand. Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi, meets the Alaknanda, hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. • The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopnath glacier above Badrinath.

• The left bank tributaries of the Ganga are Ramganga, Gomti, Kali or Sharda, Gandhak, Kosi, Mahanadi. • The right bank tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna and Son. The Yamuna joins the Ganga at Allahabad. • Kosi is called as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’ while Damodar is called as ‘Sarrow of Bengal’. • Hooghly is distributory of the Ganga flowing through Kolkata.

Ganga river system River Ganga Yamuna

Source Gangotri Glacier Yamunotri Glacier

Length (km) 2,525 1,376

Falls into Bay of Bengal Yamuna

Geography River Chambal Ramganga Ghagra Sone Gandak Koshi

Source Near Mahow Garhwal District South of Mansarovar Park Amarkantak Plateau Tibet-Nepal Border Sikkim-Nepal-Tibet Himalaya

Length (km) 960 596 1,080 780 425* 730*

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Falls into Yamuna

*Length in India

The Brahmaputra System

• It is known as Tsangpo in Tibet, Dihang of Siang in Arunachal Pradesh, Brahma­ putra in Assam and Jamuna in Bangladesh. • Majuli is the largest riverine island in the world. • The combined stream of Ganga and Brahmaputra forms the biggest delta in the world, the Sunderbans.

• Brahmaputra is volumewise largest river of India, whereas lengthwise Ganga is the longest in India.

The Peninsular River System

1. East Flowing Rivers (or Delta forming rivers) ƒƒ East flowing rivers do not form estuaries. ƒƒ East flowing rivers fall in Bay of Bengal.

East Flowing Rivers River

Source

Length (km)

Tributaries

Mahanadi

Foothills of Dandakanaya

857

Godavari

Triambak Sahyadri Near Nashik

1,465

Seonath, Hasdeo, Db, Mand Tel, Ong And Jonk Penganga, Wardha, Indravati Sabri Manjira.

Krishna

Mahabaleswar in Western Ghats

1,400

Cauveri

Brahmgiri Range in Western Ghats 800

2. West Flowing Rivers (or Estuaries forming rivers)

Bhima, Tungabhadra, Malprabha and Koyana Herongi, Hemavati; Shishma, Arkvati

ƒƒ West flowing rivers do not form delta. ƒƒ West flowing rivers fall in Arabian Sea.

West Flowing Rivers River Sabarmati Mahi Narmada Tapi

Source Aravali Range Vindhyan Range Amarkantak Multai Satpura Range

Length (km) 371 583 1,312 724

Luni

Aravalis

495

Important River Valley Projects of India Bhakra Nangal Project

On Satluj in Punjab. Highest in India. Height 226m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar Lake.

Mandi Project

On Beas in H.P.

Chambal Valley Project

Tributaries Hathmati, Siri, Wakal — Hiran, Tawa Shakkar Purna, Betul, Arunvati, Ganjal — On Chambal in M.P. and Rajasthan. 3 dams are there: Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar dam

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Damodar Valley Project

On Damodar in Jharkhand. Based on Tennessee Valley Project, USA

Hirakud Project

On Mahanadi in Orissa. World’s longest dam: 4,801 m

Rihand Project

On Son in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called Govind Vallabh Pant Reservoir

Kosi Project

On Kosi in N. Bihar

Mayurakshi Project

On Mayurakshi in W.B.

Kakrapara Project

On Tapi in Gujarat

Nizamsagar Project

On Manjra in A.P.

Nagarjuna Sagar Project

On Krishna in A.P.

Tungabhadra Project

On Tungabhadra in A.P. and Karnataka

Shivasamudram Project

On Cauvery in Karnataka

Tata Hydel Scheme

On Bhima in Maharashtra

Sharavathi Hydel Project

On Jog Falls in Karnataka

Farakka Project

On Ganga in W.B. Apart from power and irrigation, it helps to remove silt for easy navigation

Ukai Project

On Tapti in Gujarat

Mahi Project

On Mahi in Gujarat

Salal Project

On Chenab in J and K

Mata Tila Multipurpose Project

On Betwa in U.P. & M.P.

Thein Project

On Ravi, Punjab

Pong Dam

On Beas, Punjab

climate of India Climatic Diversity in the Indian Subcontinent

• The interior of the country, especially in the north, has a continental type of climate. • The coastal areas have a more equitable climate. In mountainous areas, altitude deter­mines the climate.

• In June, the highest temperature in Rajasthan may go up to 55°C. • But, in Drass and Kargil the night tem­ perature in January may go down to –45°C to –50°C. • Mausynram or Cherrapunji in Meghalaya has an annual rainfall of 2,500 cms. • But, in the Thar Desert the annual rainfall is less than 13 cm. • India has tropical monsoon type of climate. It is greatly influenced by the presence of Himalayas in the North as they block the cold masses from Central Asia. • The Tropic of Cancer (23.5°N) divides India into two almost equal climatic zones, namely, the Northern zone and the Southern zone. • The Southern Zone has the midday sun almost vertically overhead at least twice every year and the Northern zone does not have the midday sun vertically overhead during any part of the year. The factors influencing the climate of India are: 1. Location and Latitudinal extent 2. Distance from sea 3. The Northern mountain range 4. Physiography 5. Monsoon wind 6. Upper air circulation 7. Tropical cyclones and Western disturbances 8. El Nino and La Nina: El Nino is a narrow warm current, which occasionally appears off the coast of Peru in December by temporarily replacing the cold Peru Current. La Nina is the reverse of ElNino. It is a harbinger of heavy monsoon showers in India. 9. Southern Oscillation: Whenever the surface level pressure is high over the Indian Ocean, there is low pressure over the Pacific Ocean and vice versa. This inter-relation of high and low pressures over the Pacific and the Indian Ocean is called Southern Oscillation. Local storms in India Name

Significance

Norwester

It is spring storm shower and cause rain fall in Assam and west Bengal.

Geography Name

Significance

Mangoshower

Thunderstorm causing rainfall in southern plateau helps in mango ripening.

Cherry blossoms

Thunderstorm causing rainfall in Karnataka helps in flowering coffee.

Kalbaisakhis

Storm in West Bengal during summer due to the strong convective movement.

Seasons in India

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1. The cold weather or winter season. 2. The hot weather or summer season. 3. The South-West monsoon season of rainy season. 4. The season of the retreating monsoon of cool season.

Climatic Regions of India Trewartha’s Classification

• India Meteorological Department (IMD) has recognised the following four distinct seasons:

• Dr.Trewartha’s scheme has been most saticfatory of all classifications of Indian climatic regions. he presented a modified form of koppen’s classification.

Climatic Regions of India Climate type

Areas

Characteristics

Tropical rain forests climate (Am)

Western Ghats, west coastal plains, parts of Assam and Tripura

High temperature througout the year, heavy seasonal rainfall, annual rainfall 200 cm

Tropical Savana climate (Aw)

Most peninsular regions (except leeward side of western ghats)

Dry winters, annual rainfall varies from 76 cm to 150 cm

Tropical semi arid steppe climate (Bs)

Rainshadow belt running southward from central Maharashtra to Tamil nadu

Low rainfall varies from 38 cm to 80 cm and temperature from 20° to 30°C

Tropical and subtropical steppes climate (Bsh.)

Punjab, Haryana and Kachchh region

Temperature varies from 12°–35°C

Tropical desert climate

Western part of Barmer jaisalmer and Bikaner districts of Rajasthan, parts of kachchh

Scanty rainfall

Humid subtropical climate with dry winters (CGW)

South of Himalayas

Mild winters and extremely hot summers

Mountain climate (H)

Mountainous region above 6000m or more

Rainfall varies from 63.5 to 254 cm.

Forests of India Forest type

Distribution

Climatic condition

Characteristics

Species

Tropical evergreen forests

• Rainy slopes of western Ghats • N. E. India (Except A. P.) • Eastern part of West Bengal and Odisha • Andaman and Nicobar Islands

• Rainfall > 200 cm • Relative humidity > 70% • Average temperature is about 24°C • Hot and humid climate

• Height of trees 40 to 60 m • Leaves are dark green and broad

Mahagony, Mahua, Bamboo, Irowood Kadam, Irul, Jamun, Hopea Rubber tree

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Forest type

Distribution

Tropical moist decidous forests

• Eastern parts of sahyadris • North eastern part of peninsula. • Middle and lower ganga valley • Foothills of Himalayas in bhabar • Large part of Tropical dry deciduous Maharashtra, Telengana and forests Andhra pradesh • Parts of Punjab, Haryana, and eastern parts of Rajasthan • Western part of M. P. • Tamil Nadu Dry forests • Rajasthan and adjoining areas of haryana, Gujarat and Punjab Mountainous • In Himalayan forests Region

Climatic condition

Characteristics

Species

• 100 to 200 cm rainfall per annum • Moderate temperature

• 30 to 40 m high trees • They shed their leaves in dry season

Sal, Teak, Arjun, Mulberry, Kusum, Sandalwood, Mango

• 50 to 100 cm rainfall • Moderate humidity

• 6 to 15m high • Roots are thick and long.

Teak, Sal, Bamboo, mango, Acacic, Neem, Shisham

• Low rainfall (less • Thorny vegetation than 50 cm. per annum). Relative • leaves are small humidity is less • Due to increase • Each vegetation of altitude the belt occurs at temperature relatively 300m decreases hence more height Himalayan forests in Eastern contain all the himalayas varities of world except equatorial forests

Soil • Soil forms the upper layer of the earth’s crust capable of supporting life. • It is made up of loose rock materials and humus.

Importance of Soil Resources

• Soil is an extremely important resource, especially in agricultural countries like India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. • Most food items, like rice, wheat, pulses, fruits and vegetables and much of our clothing are derived from the soil directly or indirectly.

Soil Erosion and Its Types

• Removal of top layer of soil when it is exposed to wind and rain is easily blown

Cactus, Thorny Babool, Palm khair Sal, teak, chir, Deodar, Oak, Olive, Chestnut conifers, spruce etc.

or washed away. This condition is known as soil erosion. • Basically, soil cover is removed by two powerful agents– (i) Running water, (ii) Wind.

Types of Soil Found in India

• Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) divides Indian soils into eight groups:

Alluvial Soil

• It covers 40% of the land area. In fact the entire Northern Plains are made up of these soils. • They have been brought down and deposited by three great Himalayan rivers–Sutlej, Ganga and Brahmaputra and their tributaries.

Geography

• They are common in Eastern coastal plains and in the deltas of Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery. • Crops Grown: Suitable for Kharif and Rabi crops like cereals, cottons, oilseeds and sugarcane. The lower Ganga-Brahmaputra valley is useful for jute cultivation.

Regur or Black Soil

• These soils are of volcanic origin. These soils are black in colour and are also known as black soils. • Since, they are ideal for growing cotton, they are also called black cotton soils, in addition to their normal nomenclature of Regur soils. • They cover the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa and southern Madhya Pradesh and extend eastward in the south along the Godavari and Krishna Valleys. • Crops Grown: Cotton, Jowar, Wheat, Sugarcane, Linseed, Gram, Fruit and Vegetables.

Red Soil

• Formed by weathering of crystalline and metamorphic mixture of clay and sand. • They are red in colour because of their high Iron-oxide (FeO) content. • They are deficient in phosphoric acid, organic matter and nitrogenous material. • Red soils cover the eastern part of the peninsular region comprising Chhotanagpur plateau, Odisha (Orissa), eastern Chhattisgarh, Telangana, the Nilgiris and Tamil Nadu plateau. • Crops Grown: Wheat, Rice, Millets, Pulses.

185

• Crops Grown: Unsuitable for agriculture due to high content of acidity and inability to retain moisture.

Saline and Alkine soil

• Region: drier parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. • Many salts such as sodium, magnesium and calcium.

Arid and Desert Soil

• Region: Northwest India covers entire area of the west Aravalis in Rajasthan and parts of Haryana, Punjab and Gujarat. • Rich in Phosphates and Calcium not deficient in Nitrogen and humus. • Fertile if irrigated, e.g., Ganga Nagar area of Rajasthan (wheat basket of Rajasthan).

Mountain Soil

• Region: Hills of Jammu and Kashmir, Uttarakhand and Assam hills. • Rich in Iron and humus but deficient in lime.

Peaty and Marshy Soil

• Region: Kerala, coastal regions of Odisha, tamil Nadu and Sundarbans of west Bengal. • Contain large amount of soluble salts and organic matter.

Agriculture in India

• About 65–70% of the total population of the country is dependent on agriculture. • Agriculture with its allied activities accounts Laterite Soil for 45% of our national income. • The Laterite soils are formed due to weathering There are three crop seasons in India: of lateritic rock in high temperatures • Kharif: Sown in June/July, harvested in and heavy rainfall with alternate dry and September/October, e.g., rice, jowar, bajra, wet period. ragi, maize, cotton and jute. • They are found along the edge of plateau in • Rabi: Sown in October/December, harvested the east covering small parts of Tamil Nadu, in April/May, e.g., wheat, barley, peas, Orissa and a small part of Chhotanagpur in rapeseed, mustard grains. the north and Meghalaya in the north‑east. • Zyad: They are raised between April/June, • Laterite soils are red in colour with a high e.g., melons, watermelons, cucumbers, toris, content of iron-oxides; poor in Nitrogen leafy and other vegetables. and Lime.

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Types of Farming Shifting Agriculture

Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh. • In this type of agriculture, a piece of forest land is cleared mainly by tribal people by felling and burning of trees and crops are grown.

• It is practised by the tribals in the forest areas of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Major crops and producing states Crop Type Cereals

Cash crops Oil seeds

Fibre

Plantation

Spices

Crop Name Wheat Rice Gram Barley Bajra Sugarcane Poppy Coconut Linseed Groundnut Rape seed and Mustard Sesame Sunflower Cotton Jute Silk Hemp Coffee Rubber Tea Tobacco Pepper Ginger Turmeric

Extensive Farming

Major Producers Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Madhya Pradesh West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan Maharashtra, Gujarat and Rajasthan Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and himachal Pradesh Kerala and Tamil Nadu Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan Andhra pradesh and maharashtra Maharashtra and Gujarat West Bengal and Bihar Karnataka and Kerala Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Karnataka and Kerala Karnataka and Kerala Assam and Kerala Gujarat, Maharashtra and M. P. Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu Kerala and Uttar Pradesh Andhra Pradesh and Odisha

• Annually two or three crops are grown due to the demand of food for large size of population. • Agriculture is done with the help of manual labour.

• This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses a limited amount of labour and capital on relatively large area. • Here, per acre yield is low but overall Plantation Agriculture production is in surplus due to less • In this type of agriculture, trees or bushes population. are planted on huge estates. • Agriculture is done with the help of machines. • A single crop like rubber, sugarcane, coffee, tea or banana is grown.

Intensive Farming

• This is a system of farming in which the cultivator uses large amount of labour and capital on relatively small area.

Problems of Indian Agriculture

• Indian agriculture is chiefly of subsistence type where a large manual labour is

Geography

• • • • • • • •

employed to work on farms–to grow just enough food for the needs of the family and Mineral Resources of India very little is left for marketing. Three types of minerals resources are as follows: Deforestation, overgrazing and heavy rainfall Mineral Area have led to soil erosion. Divisions of land have led to fragmentation. Non-Metallic mineral Mines The size of land holding is very small Limestone Found in Rajasthan, Madhya and uneconomic. Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh The farmers are poor, illiterate and ignorant. They use primitive tools and out-dated methods. Dolomite About 90% of the dolomite is found in Madhya Pradesh, They lack financial credit and investment Chhattisgarh, Odisha, West facilities. Bengal, Gujarat Good seeds, fertilizers and improved Asbestos Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh and technology are not available to them. Karnataka They lack irrigation facilities and are still on Gypsum Found in Rajasthan and Jammu the mercy of nature.

Green Revolution • The increase in agriculture productivity of cereals that has taken place since the 1960s mainly as a result of introduction of high yielding varieties of wheat and rice, use of fertilizers, machines and irrigation, etc. is known as green revolution. • Green revolution had made us self-sufficient in food production. • It is the phrase generally used to describe the spectacular increase that took place during 1968 and is continuing in the production of food-grains in India.

Impact of Green Revolution • • • • • • • • • • • •

187

Positive Impact

Increase in agricultural production Reduction of the import of food grains Capitalistic farming Industrial growth Rural employment

Negative Impact

Inter-crop imbalance Increase in regional imbalance Unemployment due to mechanisation Increase in inter-regional migration Environment Impacts Soil Solinisation Negligence of other crops

Graphite

Iron

Manganese

Chromite

Copper

Bauxite

Gold

uranium

Thorium

Lithium

and Kashmir Occurs in Bolangir, Kalahandi (Odisha) and Bhagalpur (Bihar)

Metallic Mineral Mines Kemmangundi, Hospet and sondur (karnataka) Barbil-Koria (Odisha), Boiladila and DalliRajhara (Chhattisgarh) north Goa Found in Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Maharashtra Found in Odisha, bihar, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Malanj Khand belt (M.P.) Ketri-Singhara Belt (Rajasthan) Singhbum (Jharkhand) Found in Odisha, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh kolar and Hutti (Karnataka) Ramgiri in (Anantpur) A. P. Atomic Mineral Mines Gaya (Bihar) Saharanpur (U.P.) Jadugoda (Jharkhand) Monazite sands of Kerala Coast. Derived from Monazite sand, Found in Kerala, Jharkhand Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan Found in lepidolite and spodumene, lepidolite is found in Jharkhand, M. P. and Rajasthan, Bastar region

188

General Knowledge  2020

of India 2014-15 and comprise only 2% of Oil Refineries the total traffic. • There are 19 refineries in India, 16 in public sector, one in joint sector and two in private • The longest NH in India is 375 km long NH–44 (Srinagar – Kanyakumari). sector. • The new NH-44 is the combination of NH Energy 1A, 1, 2, 3, 7, 26 and NH - 75. • Power development commenced in India • It passes through 12 states: Jammu & with the commissioning of electricity supply Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, in Darjeeling during 1897, followed by a Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya hydropower station at Sivasamudram in Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Karnataka during 1902. Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. • National Hydropower Corporation (NHPC) • Earlier NH-7 was the largest highway of India. (Varanasi-Kanya Kumari : 2369 km). was set up in 1975. • National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) • NH-7 passes through UP (120 km), MP (504 km), Maharashtra (232 km), Telangana (504 was set up in 1975. km), Andhra Pradesh (250 km), Karnataka • Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay was set (125 km) Tamil Nadu (627 km). up in 1954 and then renamed as Bhabha • NH 1 & 2 is called G.T. Road. Atomic Research Centre (BARC) in 1967. • The first heavy water plant was set up in • Jawahar Tunnel is located in NH1A. • NH 47A is the smallest highway of India. Its Nangal in 1962. length is only 6 km. This is in Kerala. • The renewable energy programme started • NH-15 passes through the desert of Rajasthan. with the establishment of the Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources in 1982. • Recently NH-7 renamed as NH-44. Indian Renewable Energy Development • Golden Quadrilateral (5846 km) : High quality road joining the four megacities of Agency was set up in 1987. In 1992; the country (Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and DNES was converted into Ministry of NonMumbai) is called as Golden Quadrilateral conventional Energy Sources. Connecting National Highways.

Sources of Irrigation in India

There are various sources of irrigation which are: (a) Wells and Tubewells: 46% of total irrigation. (b) Canals: 39% of total irrigation. (c) Tanks: 8% of total irrigation. (d) Other sources: 7% of total irrigation (Dongs, Kuhls, Springs etc.).

Power Resources of India

India uses a large amount of fossil fuels as a source of energy alongwith a number of renewable sources of energy.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Delhi-Kolkata : NH-2 Mumbai -Delhi : NH-8 Mumbai -Chennai : NH-4 Chennai-Kolkata : NH-5

Top Ten Longest National Highways of India Rank National Highway

1 NH-7(44) Varanasi — Jabalpur — Nagpur — Hyderabad — Bengaluru — Madurai — Kanyakumari 2. NH-6

Hajira — Surat — Dhule — Nagpur — Raipur — Sambalpur — Kolkata

3. NH-5

Bhubaneswar — Vishakhapatnam — Vijayawada — Nellore — Chennai

National Highways • National Highways is the responsibility of the central Government. These have about 96,214 km length, according to the survey

Major cities on Route

Geography 4. NH-5

Pathankot — Amritsar — Bhatinda — Bikaner — Jaisalmer — Samakhiali

5. NH-2

Faridabad — Mathura — Agra — Allahabad — Varanasi — Aurangabad — Dhanbad — Durgapur — Kolkata

6. NH-8

Delhi — Gurgaon — Jaipur — Udaipur — Gandhinagar — Ahmedabad — Vadodara — Surat — Silvassa — Mumbai

7. NH-17

Panvel — Panaji — Ankola — Manglore — Kozhikode — Kochi

8. NH-4

Mumbai — Pune — Kolhapur — Bangalore — Vellore — Chennai

9. NH-3

Agra — Gwalior — Indore — Mumbai

10. NH-31

Barhi — Begusarai — Dalkhola — Siliguri — Kokrajhar — Guwahati

National Highway Development Programme (NHDP)

1. The Golden Quadrilateral Project involves connectivity of: i. Delhi to Kolkata: 1,453 km (NH2). ii. Delhi to Mumbai: 1,419 km (NH8, NH76 and NH46). iii. Mumbai to Chennai: 1,290 km (NH4, NH6 and NH60). Total length: 5,846 kms. 2. North-South and East-West Corridors: i. NS corridor connects Srinagar to Kanyakumari. ii. EW corridor connects Porbandar (Gujarat) to Silchar (Asam). • NS and EW corridors cross each other at Jhansi (Uttar Pradesh).

State Highways

• They are constructed and maintained by the State Government. • Maharashtra has the maximum length of roads. • West Bengal has the maximum road density. • Roads on the borders are constructed and maintained by the Border Roads Organisation (BRO). • BRO was established in May 1960.

189

• The BRO is doing highly commendable jobs of construction and maintenance in Myanmar and Afghanistan too.

Rail Transport

• The total route covered is approximately 63000 km. • Indian Railway Board was established in March 1905. • Indian Railway was nationalised in 1950. • The management and governance of the Indian Railways is in the hands of the Railway Board. • Railways have been divided into 17 zones. • A new zone Kolkata Metro Zone (17th zone) was established on 29 December, 2010. • India has the second largest railway network in Asia and the fourth largest in the World after the USA, Russia and China. • It is the largest public sector undertaking of the country and it is the world’s second largest railway network under single management. • The first Indian railway line in India was operated for public traffic in 1853 between Mumbai and Thane over a distance of 34 km. • The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and Poona. • The fastest train in India is the Bhopal-New Delhi Shatabdi Express, whose maximum speed is 140 km/hr. • The first metro rail was introduced in Kolkata on October 24, 1984. • The oldest steam engine ‘Fairy Queen’ still runs on rail. • Uttar Pradesh has largest railway network in India. • Mumbai CST is the busiest railway junction of India. • About 26% of the rail lines have been electrified. Railway Zones Zone

Headquarter

Central Railway

Mumbai

Eastern Railway

Kolkata

Northern Railway

New Delhi

North-Eastern Railway

Gorakhpur

190

General Knowledge  2020

Zone

Headquarter

North Eastern Frontier Railway

Malegoan

Southern Railway

Chennai

South Central Railway

Secundrabad

South Eastern Railway

Kolkata

Western Railway

Mumbai (Church Gate

East central Railway

hajipur

East Coast Railway

Bhubaneshwar

North Central Railway

Allahabad

North Western Railway

Jaipur

South-East Central Railway

Bilaspur

South-West Railway

Hubli

West Central Railway

Jabalpur

Kolkata Metro

Kolkata

Vivek Express • It has the longest train route in India connecting Dibrugarh and Kanyakumari. • It is 8th longest route in the world. Konkan Railways • It runs from Mangalore to Roha (40 km south of Mumbai).

Air Transport

• JRD Tata was the first person to take a solo flight from Mumbai to Karachi in 1931. • In 1935, the ‘Tata Airlines’ started its operation between Mumbai and Thiruvananthapuram and in 1937 between Mumbai and Delhi. • Airways in India started in 1911. • All the airway companies were nationalised in 1953 as Air India. • Vayudoot was established in 1981 for domestic services, but was later merged in Indian Airlines.

Merger of Air India and Indian Airlines

On 1 March, 2007, the Union Cabinet approved the proposal to merge Indian Airlines and Air India. Accordingly, a new company, viz. National Aviation Company of India Limited (NACL)

has been incorporated on 30 March, 2007 with its Headquarters at Mumbai. The brand name of the new airlines will be Air India (or Indian) and its logo will be Maharaja.

Water Transport

• The Central Water Tribunal was established in 1887. • Its headquarter is in Kolkata.

Internal Waterways

• India has got about 14,544 km of navigable waterways which comprise rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc. • The waterway from Haldia to Allahabad was made a National Waterway in 1986. • The Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) came into existence on 27 October, 1986.

Ports in India

• India has about 190 ports, with 13 major and the rest intermediate and minor. • Largest port of India is Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai. • The largest natural port is in Vishakhapatnam. • Kandla in Gujarat is a tidal port. It has been made into a free trade zone. • Mumbai port is the busiest port of India. • Large ports are maintained by the Central Government whereas small ports are included in the concurrent list and are managed by the State Government. Nicknames of Important Indian Places Nickname

Place

Garden City of India

Bengaluru

Silicon Valley of India

Bengaluru

Electronic City of India

Bengaluru

Pink City

Jaipur

Gateway of India

Mumbai

Twin City

HyderabadSecunderabad

City of Festivals

Madurai

Deccan Queen

Pune

Golden City

Amritsar

Manchester of India

Ahmedabad

Geography

191

Nickname

Place

Town

River

City of Seven Islands

Mumbai

Delhi

Yamuna

Queen of Arabian Sea

Cochin

Agra

Yamuna

Space City

Bangaluru

Badrinath

Alaknanda

City of Buildings

Kolkata

Hardwar

Ganga

Dakshin Ganga

Godavari

Kanpur

Ganga

Old Ganga

Godavari

Egg Bowls of Asia

Andhra Pradesh

Allahabad

Soya Region

Madhya Pradesh

At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Manchester of the South

Coimbatore

Kota

Chambal

City of Nawabs

Lucknow

Ahmedabad

Sabarmati

Venice of the East

Cochin

Bareilly

Ram Ganga

Sorrow of Bengal

Damodar river

Ayodhya

Saryu

Sorrow of Bihar

Kosi river

Jaunpur

Gomti

City of Rallies

New Delhi

Lucknow

Gomti

Manchester of the North

Kanpur

Srinagar

Jhelum

City of Temples

Varanasi

Varanasi

Ganga

Patna

Ganga

Steel City of India

Jamshedpur (also called Tatanagar)

Ujjain

Kshipra

Jamshedpur

Swarnarekha

City of Lakes

Srinagar

Jabalpur

Narmada

City of Weavers

Panipat

Surat

Tapti

Heaven of India

Jammu & Kashmir

Curnool

Tungabhadra

Blue Mountains

Nilgiri

Vijayvada

Krishna

Panji

Mandavi

Queen of the Mountains

Mussoorie (Uttarakhand)

Nasik

Godavari

Hyderabad

Musi

Tiruchirapalli

Cauvery

Seriranganatnam

Cauvery

Cuttack

Mahanadi

Sambalpur

Mahanadi

Kolkata

Hooghly

Guwahati

Brahmaputra

Dibrugarh

Brahmaputra

Sacred River

Ganga

Hollywood of India

Mumbai

City of Castles

Kolkata

State of Five Rivers

Punjab

Boston of India

Ahmedabad

Garden of Spices of India

Kerala

Abode of the God Prayag

Allahabad

Pittsburg of India

Jamshedpur

Switzerland of India

Kashmir

Important Indian Towns on Rivers Town

River

Ludhiana

Satluj

Ferozepur

Satluj

Mathura

Yamuna

Famous Hill Stations in India Hill Station

Height from sea level (m)

State

Gulbarga

2550

J and K

Dalhousie

2035

H.P.

Ooty (Ootacamund)

2290

Tamil Nadu

192

General Knowledge  2020 Height from sea level (m)

Hill Station

State

Tribal Group

Found in

Bhils

M.P. and Rajasthan

Bakkarwals

J and K

Baigas

M.P.

Badagas

Tamil Nadu

Chutia

Assam

Chenchus

A.P. and Odisha

Chang North-East

North-East

Oarons

Bihar and Odisha

Onges

Andaman and Nicobar

Pho North-East

North-East

Santhals

WB, Odisha and Bihar

Sangtam

North-East

Murias

M.P.

Nishi North

East

Nagas

Nagaland

Warlis

Maharashtra

Mundas

Bihar

Moplahs

Kerala

Minas

Rajasthan

Murias

M.P.

Lushai

Tripura

Lepchas

Sikkim Himachal Pradesh

Shimla

2210

H.P.

Pahalgam

2200

J&K

Darjeeling

2135

West Bengal

Kodaikanal

2120

Tamil Nadu

Lansdowne

2120

Uttarakhand

Mussoorie

2006

Uttarakhand

Panchgani

1200

Maharashtra

Kullu Valley

1200

H.P.

Mt. Abu

1220

Rajasthan

Kalimpong

1250

West Bengal

Mahabaleshwar

1370

Maharashtra

Mandi

709

H.P.

Periyar

915

Kerala

Panchmarhi

1065

M.P.

Mannar

1160

Kerala

Mukteshwar

1975

Uttarakhand

Nainital

1940

Uttarakhand

Kasauli

1985

H.P.

Coonoor

1860

Tamil Nadu

Gangtok

1850

Sikkim

Manali

1830

H.P.

Ranikhet

1830

Uttarakhand

Ranchi

1800

Jharkhand

Lahaulas

Srinagar

1770

J and K

Kuki

Manipur

Almora

1650

Uttarakhand

Kotas

Tamil Nadu A.P.

Shillong

1500

Meghalaya

Kolam

Lonawala

620

Maharashtra

Kol

M.P.

Khandala

620

Maharashtra

Khonds

Odisha

Khasis

Assam and Meghalaya

Khas

U.P.

Khond

M.P. M.P.

Tribal Groups of India Tribal Group

Found in

Apatamis

Arunachal Pradesh

Angami

Manipur

Kharia

Adivasis

MP (Bastar distt.)

Katkari

M.P.

Abhors

North-East

Kanikar

Tamil Nadu

Birhors

M.P. and Bihar

Jarawas

Little Andamans

Bhuia

M.P.

Jaintias

Meghalaya

Bhotias

Uttarakhand

Irula

Tamil Nadu

Geography

193

Tribal Group

Found in

Town

Industries

State

Gujlars

J and K and H.P.

Burnpur

Steel Plant

West Bengal

Gonds

M.P. and Bihar

Bhurkunda

Jharkhand

Garos

Assam and Meghalaya

Glass Industries

Gallong

North-East

Bhagalpur

Silk Industries

Bihar

Gaddis

Himachal Pradesh

Bhandara

Explosives

Maharashtra

Sema

Nagaland

Bhadravati

Iron and Steel

Karnataka

Bongaigaon

Petroleum

Assam

Sentinelese

Andaman and Nicobar

Bhadoi

Carpets

U. P.

Shompens

Andaman and Nicobar

Churk

Cement

M. P.

Todas

Tamil Nadu

Cyberabad

Uralis

Kerala

Andhra Pradesh

Wancho

North-East

Electronics, Computers, Information Technology

Chittaranjan

Locomotive

West Bengal

Kolkata

Jute, Leather, Electric goods

West Bengal

Cochin

Ship-building, Coconut oil, Rubber

Kerala

Calicut

Coffee, Coconut Kerala

Coimbatore

Cotton Industries

Tamil Nadu

Dhariwal

Woollen Clothes

Punjab

Durgapur

Steel

West Bengal

Digboi

Petroleum

Assam

Delhi

Textiles, Electronics, D.D.T.

Delhi

Dalmianagar

Cement

Bihar

Darjeeling

Tea

W. Bengal

Dindigul

Cigar, Tobacco

Tamil Nadu

Ferozabad

Bangle works

M. P.

Guntur

Cotton industries

Andhra Pradesh

Gwalior

Pottery, Tobacco

Madhya Pradesh

Gomia

Explosives

Jharkhand

Haridwar

Heavy electricals

Uttarakhand

Hatia

Heavy Engineering Corporation

Jharkhand

Indian Towns Associated with Industries Town

Industries

State

Ahmedabad

Cotton Textiles

Gujarat

Agra

Leather, Marble, Carpet

U.P.

Aligarh

Locks, Cutlery

U.P.

Ankleshwar

Oil Fields

Gujarat

Ambernath

Machine Tools

Maharashtra

Amritsar

Woollen Clothes

Punjab

Anand

Milk and its Products

Gujarat

Alwaye

Fertilizer, Monazite Factory

Kerala

Ambala

Scientific Instruments

Haryana

Bokaro

Steel Plant

Jharkhand

Bengaluru

Telephones, Aircrafts, Motors, Cotton Textiles, Toys

Karnataka

Batanagar

Shoes

West Bengal

Bareilly

Resin Industries, Match Factory

U.P.

Bhilai

Steel Plant

Chhattisgarh

Barauni

Chemical Fertilizer

Bihar

194

General Knowledge  2020

Town

Industries

State

Town

Industries

State

Haldia

Chemical fertilizer

West Bengal

Chennai

Tamil Nadu

Hazira

Artificial Rayon Gujarat

Jamshedpur

Iron and Steel, Locomotives, Railway coaches

Jharkhand

Leather, Cigarette, Integral coach factory

Madurai

Cotton-and Silk-weaving

Tamil Nadu

Mirzapur

U.P.

Surgical goods and sports articles

Punjab

Carpet, Pottery, Brass industries

Muradabad

U. P.

Cloth Printing, Brass

Rajasthan

Brassware, Cutlery

Mathura

Oil refinery

U.P.

Jharia

Coal mines

Jharkhand

Mysore

Karnataka

Jabalpur

Bidi industry

Madhya Pradesh

Sandalwood oil, Silk goods

Meerut

U.P.

Jainakot

H.M.T. watches Jammu and Kashmir

Japla

Cement

Jharkhand

Publication work, Sports goods, Scissorsmaking

Kanpur

Cotton and woollen mills, Leather, Sugar

U.P.

Mumbai

Cinema industries, Cotton textiles

Maharashtra

Katni

Cement

M.P.

Modinagar

Nylon thread

U.P.

Korba

Aluminium factory, Thermal plant

Chhattisgarh

Moorie

Aluminium

Jharkhand

Majhagaon

Ship-building

Maharashtra

Nagpur

Maharashtra

Koyna

Aluminium factory

Maharashtra

Cotton mills, Oranges

Nepanagar

Newsprint

Koyali

Petrochemical industries

Gujarat

Madhya Pradesh

Nasik

Maharashtra

Kolar

Gold-mining centre

Karnataka

Security printing press

Neyveli

Tamil Nadu

Kota

Atomic power plant

Rajasthan

Lignite industries

Nunamati

Oil refineries

Assam

Kanchipuram

Silk clothes

Tamil Nadu

Narora

U.P.

Karnal

Dairy product

Haryana

Atomic Power Plant

Kandla

Chemical fertiliser, famous port

Gujarat

Nangal

Fertilisers

Punjab

Panna

Diamond mining

M.P.

Khetri

Copper industries

Rajasthan

Pinjore

Hindustan Machine Tools

Haryana

Ludhiana

Hosiery

Punjab

Perambur

Tamil Nadu

Lucknow

Embroidery work, Chicken work

U.P.

Integral coach factory

Pimpri

Penicillin factory

Maharashtra

Jallundhur

Jaipur

Geography

195

Town

Industries

State

Town

Industries

State

Raniganj

Coal-mining

West Bengal

Vijaynagar

Steel plant

Karnataka

Rourkela

Steel plant, Chemical fertilisers

Odisha

Vishakhapatnam Ship-building, Iron and steel, Oil refinery

A.P.

Rana Pratap Sagar

Hydropower plant

Rajasthan

Varanasi

U.P.

Renukoote

Aluminium plant

U.P.

Rail engines and saari industries

Worli

Baby food

Maharashtra

Zainkot

HMT watches

Jammu and Kashmir

Roopnarayanpur Cables

West Bengal

Rishikesh

Antibiotic Plant Uttarakhand

Saharanpur

Cigarette factory, Newsprint

U.P.

Sindri

Chemical fertilisers

Jharkhand

Srinagar

Woollen shawls, silk, Woodwork

Jammu and Kashmir

Cotton textiles, Diamondcutting

Gujarat

Surat

Largest, Longest, Highest and Smallest in India Largest Dome

Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur (Karnataka)

Largest Zoo

Zoological Gardens, Alipur, Kolkata

Largest Man-made Lake

Govind Vallabh Pant Sagar (Rihand Dam)

Largest Desert

Thar (Rajasthan)

Highest Tower

Pitampura Tower, Delhi

Surajpur

Cement factory Haryana

Smallest State (Area)

Goa

Suratgarh

Agricultural implements

Rajasthan

Highest Waterfall

Gersoppa waterfall (Karnataka)

Singhbhum

Copper, iron

Jharkhand

Singreni

Coal-mining

Andhra Pradesh

Longest Electric Railway Line

From Delhi to Kolkata via Patna

Salem

Iron and steel

Tamil Nadu

Largest Cave Temple

Kailash Temple, Ellora (Maharashtra)

Samastipur

Jute, Paper, Bihar Tobacco, Sugar

Longest River

Ganges Yamuna

Tarapur

Atomic power plant

Maharashtra

Longest Tributary River of India

Titagarh

Paper and jute

West Bengal

Longest River of the South

Godavari

Thiruvananthapuram

Coir-matting

Kerala

Highest Mountain Peak

Godwin Austen (K2)

Trombay

Oil refinery

Maharashtra

Cigar

Tamil Nadu

Largest Lake (Fresh Water)

Wular Lake (Kashmir)

Tiruchirapalli Tirupati

Scooter

Andhra Pradesh

Highest Dam

Bhakra Dam (Punjab)

Largest Mosque

Jama Masjid, Delhi

Tanjore

Silk clothes

Tamil Nadu

Longest Road

Grand Trunk Road

Thumba

Rocketlaunching station

Kerala

State with Longest Coastline

Gujarat

Vijaypur

Fertilisers

M.P.

Longest Railway Route

From Jammu to Kanyakumari

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Longest Tunnel

Jawahar Tunnel (Jammu and Kashmir)

Longest River which forms estuary

Narmada

Longest National Highway

NH-7

Largest Church

Saint Cathedral (Goa)

Longest Dam

Hirakud Dam (Odisha)

Longest Beach

Marina Beach, Chennai

Longest River Bridge

Mahatma Gandhi Setu, Patna

Largest Museum

National Museum, Kolkata

Largest Delta

Sunderbans Delta, West Bengal

Largest Animal Fair

Sonepur (Bihar)

Highest Gateway

Buland Darwaza, Fatehpur Sikri (Agra)

Important Indian Towns on the Bank of Rivers Town

River

Allahabad

At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna

Ujjain

Shipra

Surat

Tapti

Jamshedpur

Swarnarekha

Dibrugarh

Brahmaputra

Biggest Hotel

Oberoi-Sheraton (Mumbai)

Guwahati

Brahmaputra

Largest State (Area)

Rajasthan

Kolkata

Hooghly

Place of Heaviest Rainfall

Mausinram (Meghalaya)

Sambalpur

Mahanadi

Largest Corridor

Rameshwaram Temple Corridor (Tamil Nadu)

Cuttack

Mahanadi

Serirangapatnam

Cauvery Musi

Largest Cantilever Span Bridge

Howrah Bridge (Kolkata)

Hyderabad Nasik

Godavari

Largest Forest State

Madhya Pradesh

Vijaywada

Krishna

Highest Straight Gravity Dam

Bhakra Dam

Curnool

Tungabhadra

Longest Railway Platform Largest Stadium

Gorakhpur (U.P.)

Tiruchirapalli

Cauvery

Delhi

Yamuna

Mathura

Yamuna

Ferozepur

Satluj

Ludhiana

Satluj

Srinagar

Jhelum

Lucknow

Gomti

Jaunpur

Gomti

Ayodhya

Saryu

Bareilly

Ram Ganga

Ahmedabad

Sabarmati

Kota

Chambal

Jabalpur

Narmada

Panji

Mandavi

Patna

Ganga

Varanasi

Ganga

Kanpur

Ganga

Haridwar

Ganga

Largest Port Highest Battlefield Highest Airport Largest River Island Largest Planetarium Highest Lake Largest Lake (Saline Water) Largest Gurudwara Deepest River Valley State with Longest Coastline of South India

Salt Lake (Yuva Bharti), Kolkata Mumbai Siachin Glacier Leh (Laddakh) Majuli (Brahmaputra River, Assam) Birla Planetarium (Kolkata) Devatal (Garhwal) Chilka Lake, Odisha Golden Temple, Amritsar Bhagirathi and Alaknanda Andhra Pradesh

Geography Peak

Town

River

Badrinath

Alaknanda

Agra

Yamuna

Heights of Some Important Indian Peaks Peak K2 Kanchenjunga Nanga Parbat Gasher Brum Broad Peak Disteghil Sar Masher Brum E Nanda Devi Masher Brum W Rakaposhi Kamet Saser Kangri Skyang Kangri

Height (in metres) above mean sea level 8,611 8,598 8,126 8,068 8,047 7,885 7,821 7,817 7,806 7,788 7,756 7,672 7,544

Sia Kangri Chaukhamba (Badrinath Peak) Trisul West Nunkun Pauhunri Kangto Dunagiri

197

Height (in metres) above mean sea level 7,422 7,138 7,138 7,135 7,128 7,090 7,066

Lengths of Some Important Indian Rivers River Indus Brahmaputra

Length (km) 3,000 2,900

Ganga Godavari Narmada Krishna Mahanadi Cauvery

2,510 1,450 1,290 1,290 890 760

Multipurpose Projects of India Project River 1. Bhakra-Nangal Satluj River Project (Highest straight way gravity dam in the world.)

States involved Joint Venture of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan.

2. Beas Project

Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan

Beas River

Objectives

• Two dams at Bhakra and Nangal • Turn the turbines of power houses at Ganguwal, Kotla;

• Provides water for irrigation canals • Bhakra Pong Dam–provide water supplies to Rajasthan canal

• Project mainly provides irrigation to Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan

3. Beas–Sutlej Link Project

Beas and Sutlej Rivers

4. Chambal Project Chambal River (origin on the northern slopes of the Vindhyas near Mhow in Madhya Pradesh.)

• A small power house for power generation Himachal Pradesh • To tap the hydroelectric and irrigation and Rajasthan

Joint venture of Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh

potential of the River Beas. • Remaining water of Beas is stored in Pong Reservoir for irrigating arid wastelands in Rajasthan through the Rajasthan canal. Completion in three stages • Stage I–Gandhisagar Dam, near Chaurasigarh fort for power production; Kota Barrage, near Kota, Right main canal; Left main canal. • Stage II—Rana Pratap Sagar at Rawatbhata in Chittorgarh District— Irrigation and power generation. • Stage III—Jawahar Sagar Dam—Power generation.

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5. Damodar Valley Project

6. Gandak Project

Damodar River (rises in the Kamarpet hill in the Chhotanagpur Plateau of Jharkhand).

Jharkhand and West Bengal.

Gandak River

Joint venture of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar. Nepal also receives irrigation and power facilities

afforestation and control of soil-erosion.

• Promotion of agriculture and industry, electricity generation.

• Four dams at Tilaiya, Konar, Maithan, Panchet

7. Hasdeo Project

Hasdeo River, a tributary of Mahanadi

Chhattisgarh

8. Hirakud Project

Mahanadi River (rises from Bastar Hills near Sihawa and flows through Chhattisgarh and Orissa).

Odisha

9. Kosi Project

Kosi River (rises from 6000 m. high Tibet Plateau).

Bihar & Nepal

10. Nagarjunasagar Krishna River Project

Andhra Pradesh

11. Rihand Dam

Uttar Pradesh

Rihand River (It rises in the Mainpat Hills in the Surguja district of M.P.)

• Flood Control, irrigation, navigation,

• Barrage at Balmikinagar in Bihar— irrigation

• Main Western Canal—irrigation to Bihar and U.P.

• Main Eastern Canal — irrigation to Bihar

and Nepal Power House—Gift to Nepal Completion in 3 phases :— • Phase I—Hasdeo Barrage; Left Bank Canal—supplies cooling water to Korba Thermal Power Station and creates irrigation potential. • Phase II—Right Bank Canal and Janjgir branch Canal • Phase III—Hasdeo Bargo Dam— storage and irrigation; Extension of the Left Bank Canal—irrigation and hydel power generation. • Stage I—(a) Hirakud dam in Sambalpur district of Odisha—Power supplies to Indian Aluminium Co. and other industries in the region. (b) Canals—Sambalpur Canal, Baragarh Canal, Saran Canal—Irrigation to Orissa. (c) Mahanadi Delta Irrigation Scheme. (d) Navigation—from Dholpur to Cuttack. • Stage II—Power house at Chiplima, Hirakud Dam at Tikarpare and at Naraj west of Cuttack. • Unit I—Barrage near Hanumannagar in Nepal—Appurtenant Works. • Unit II—Flood embankment and other protective works • Unit III—Eastern Kosi Canal System— Irrigation of North Bihar. The project provides transport facilities, soil conservation and development of agro-based industries. • Irrigation of Krishna river delta and surrounding regions. • Power generation. • Flood control by preserving water in Govind Ballabh Pant Sagar Reservoir • Provides irrigation to eastern parts of U.P. and Bihar. • Development of fisheries, water sports, tourism and navigation in U.P. and M.P.

Geography 12. Tungabhadra Project

Tungabhadra River

Joint venture of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka

199

• Irrigation to Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

• Two Power Stations at Hampi supply cheap power.

Nuclear Power Stations in India Tarapur

Maharashtra

Kalpakkam

Tamil Nadu, called Indira Gandhi centre for atomic research U. P. Kota, Rajasthan Karnataka Gujarat Tamil Nadu

Narora Rawatbhata Kaiga Kakrapar Kudankulam

Major Thermal Power Plants in India Neyveli Korba Obra Harduaganj Rihand Singrauli Parichha Talcher Farakka Satpura Ramagundam Vindhyanchal

• • • • • • • • • • •

Tamil Nadu Chhattisgarh U. P. U. P. U. P. U. P. U. P. Odisha W. Bengal M. P. A. P. M. P.

Census of India

Total Population of India — 1,21,08,54,977 Sex Ratio (females per thousand males) — 943 Density — 382 persons per sq. km. Crude Birth Rate (2009) — 22.5 Crude Death Rate (2009) — 7.3 Infant Mortality Rate (2006) — 57 per thousand live births Maternal Mortality Rate — 407 per lakh live births Literacy rate of the country — 73 per cent. (Male — 80.9 per cent, Female — 64.6 per cent) State with highest literacy — Kerala (94.0%) State with lowest literacy — Bihar (61.8%) State with highest female literacy — Kerala (92.1%)

• State with lowest female literacy — Bihar (51.5%) • State having highest decadal growth — Meghalaya (27.9%) • State having highest Population — Uttar Pradesh (19,98,12,341) • State having lowest Population — Sikkim (6,10,577) • State with highest Population Density— Bihar (1106) • State with lowest Population Density — Arunachal Pradesh (17) • State having highest Sex Ratio — Kerala (1,084) • State having lowest Sex Ratio — Haryana (879) • India accounts for a meagre 2.4 percent of the world surface area of 135.79 million sq km. • In dia su pports 17.5 percen t of th e World Population. • Life Expectancy at Birth — 63.5 years, Male — 62.6 years, Female — 64.2 years • First census was undertaken in 1872 but a systematic programme of Population Census started in 1881. • Highest Death Rate among states is in Odisha — 98 per thousand. • Lowest Death Rate among states is in Kerala — 16 per thousand. • Decadal growth rate in Population — 17.7% • State having lowest population decadal growth rate — Nagaland (–0.6%) • Four cities having highest population in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi and Chennai respectively. • Andhra Pradesh was the first state to prepare a population policy. • Highest Scheduled Caste population is in Uttar Pradesh. • Highest Scheduled Tribe Population is in Madhya Pradesh. • Lowest Scheduled Caste Population is in Nagaland. • Lowest Scheduled Tribe Population is in Punjab.

General Knowledge  2020

200

States of India Largest Union Territories (Population- Wise) : 2011 Rank

States

Persons

Rank

States

Persons

1.

Delhi

1,67,87,941

5

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

3,43,709

2.

Puducherry

12,47,953

6

Daman & Diu

2,43,247

3.

Chandigarh

10,55,450

7

Lakshadweep

64,473

4.

Andaman & Nicobar Islands

3,80,581

Largest Indian States (Population-Wise) : 2011 Rank

States

Persons

Rank

States

Persons

1.

Uttar Pradesh

19,98,12,341

16

Punjab

2,77,43,338

2.

Maharashtra

11,23,74,333

17

Chhattisgarh

2,55,45,198

3.

Bihar

10,40,99,452

18

Haryana

2,53,51,462

4.

West Bengal

9,12,76,115

19

Jammu & Kashmir

1,25,41,302

5.

Madhya Pradesh

7,26,26,809

20

Uttarakhand

1,00,86,292

6.

Tamil Nadu

7,21,47,030

21

Himachal Pradesh

68,64,602

7.

Rajasthan

6,85,48,437

22

Tripura

36,73,917

8.

Karnataka

6,10,95,297

23

Manipur

28,55,794

9.

Gujarat

6,04,39,692

24

Meghalaya

29,66,889

10.

Andhra Pradesh

4,93,86,799

25

Nagaland

19,78,502

11.

Odisha

4,19,74,218

26

Goa

14,58,545

12.

Telangana

3,51,93,978

27

Arunachal Pradesh

13,83,727

13.

Kerala

3,34,06,061

28

Mizoram

10,97,206

14.

Jharkhand

3,29,88,134

29

Sikkim

6,10, 577

15.

Assam

3,12,05,576

Largest Indian States : Area-Wise Rank

States

Area (Sq. km)

1.

Rajasthan

3,42,239.00

2.

Madhya Pradesh

3.

Maharashtra

4. 5.

States

Area (Sq. km)

16

Jharkhand

79,714.00

3,08,252.00

17

Assam

78,438.00

3,07,713.00

18

Himachal Pradesh

55,673.00

Uttar Pradesh

2,40,928.00

19

Uttarakhand

53,483.00

Jammu & Kashmir

2,22,236.00

20

Punjab

50,362.00

6.

Gujarat

1,96, 244.00

21

Haryana

44,212.00

7.

Karnataka

1,91,791.00

22

Kerala

38,863.00

8.

Andhra Pradesh

1,60,205.00

23

Meghalaya

22,429.00

9.

Odisha

1,55,707.00

24

Manipur

22,327.00

Chhattisgarh

1,35,192.00

25

Mizoram

21,081.00

10.

Rank

Geography 11.

Tamil Nadu

1,30,060.00

26

Nagaland

16,579.00

12.

Telangana

1,14,840.00

27

Tripura

10,486.00

13.

Bihar

94,163.00

28

Sikkim

7,096.00

14.

West Bengal

88,752.00

29

Goa

3,702.00

15.

Arunachal Pradesh

83,743.00

201

Largest Union Territories : Area-Wise Rank 1. 2. 3. 4.

States Andaman & Nicobar Islands Delhi Dadra & Nagar Haveli Puducherry

Area (Sq. km) 8249.00

Rank

States

5

Chandigarh

Area (Sq. km) 114.00

1483.00 491.00

6 7

Daman & Diu Lakshadweep

111.00 30.00

490.00

Glossary of Geographical Terms • Ablation: Loss of ice in the body of a glacier through melting etc. • Abrasion: Erosion of rocks by water, wind or ice (glacier). • Absolute humidity: Amount of water vapour present in a unit volume of air. • Advection: Transfer of heat through hori­ zontal movement of air. • Acolian: Relating to or caused by wind. • Altimeter: A type of aneroid barometer for measuring height used mainly in aeroplanes. • Anticline: The arch or crest of a fold in the rocks. Its opposite is a syncline, the bottom of a fold. • Antipodes: Two points diametrically opposite on the surface of earth. • Aphelion: The position of the earth in its orbit when it is at its greatest distance from the sun. At its nearest distance from the sun the earth is said to be in perihelion. • Apogee: The position of the moon or any other heavenly body, when it is at its greatest distance from the earth. At its shortest distance from the earth the moon is said to be in perigee. • Atoll: A ring or horseshoe-shaped coral reef. • Aurora Australis and Aurora Borealis: The light phenomena seen in the sky at night

• •

• • • • • • • • • • •

in the higher latitudes of the southern and northern hemisphere respectively. Avalanche: A large mass of snow and ice at high altitude, sliding downslope on a mountain. Azonal soil: Soil which has not been subjected sufficiently to soil forming pro­ cesses and thus has changed little from the parent material. Barometer: Instrument used for measuring pressure. Barysphere, Bathysphere or Centrosphere: Inner portion of the earth below the lithosphere or outer crust. Base level: The lowest level to which a river can deepen its valley. Beach: A gently sloping strip of land along the coast. Beufort scale: A scale identifying wind strength. Biosphere: That portion of the earth and its environment occupied by various forms of life. Blizzard: A storm of powdery snow in the Polar Regions. Bog: An area of soft, wet, spongy ground consisting mainly of decayed or decaying moss and other vegetable matter. Bora: A cold and often dry wind experienced along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Bore: A high tidal wave causing backflow of water in river. Caatinga: Thorn-forest of Brazil.

202

General Knowledge  2020

• Canyon: A narrow, deep, steep-sided river valley cut in the soft rocks. • Cape: A headland, a more or less pointed piece of land jutting out into the sea. • Cardinal points: The four main directions of the compass. • C h a p a r r a l : T h e l o w , d e n s e s c r u b , characteristic of Mediterranean type of climatic regions. • Clinometer: An instrument used for determining the difference in elevation between two points. • Cloud: A mass of tiny water droplets or ice crystals formed by condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere. • Condensation: The process by which a substance changes from vapour to liquid. • Condensation nuclei: Microscopic particles having an affinity for water. • Connate water: Water entrapped in the interstices of rocks during their formation; also called fossil water. • Convection: The uplift of air as a result of surface heating or instability due to other reasons. • Coral: A kind of rock formed of polyps forming reefs in the oceans. • Denudation: Wearing away of rocks by various agencies like wind; water and ice (glaciers). • Eclipse: Partial or full obscuring of the moon when the earth comes between the sun and the moon is called lunar eclipse. It occurs usually on the day of the full moon. A partial or complete obscuring of the sun because of the presence of the moon between the sun and the earth is called the solar eclipse and it occurs on the day of the new moon, that is, on the day the moon is not visible. • Ecology: Studies of organisms in relation to their environment. • Edaphic: Relating to soil. • Eluviation: Removal of material in solution or suspension from the upper horizons of the soils to the lower. • Estuary: Mouth of a river where tidal effects are evident and where fresh water and sea water mix.

• Eustatic movement: A large scale rise or fall of sea level. • Evapotranspiration: The term signifies total loss of water (moisture) from soil in the form of water vapour, including that lost by evaporation from open water bodies, the surface of rocks and also that lost by transpiration from growing plants. • Fathometer: Instrument used for measuring the depth of the ocean. • Fauna: The animal life of a region or a geological period. • Fiord: A glacial valley or part thereof now under the sea. • Flora: The plant life of a region or geological period. • Fog: A dense mass or small water drops or smoke or dust particles in the lower layers of the atmosphere. • Geosyncline: A large depression or trough in the earth’s crust that is a syncline on a large scale. • Geyser: A thermal spring which throws up a jet of hot water and steam intermittently. • Gorge: A narrow and deep valley of a river. • Great Circle: A circle on the earth’s surface whose plane passes through its centre and thus bisects it into two hemispheres. • Gulf: A large, deep bay. • Habitat: Natural environment of a plant or animal. • Halophyte: A plant which grows naturally in saline environment. • Hinterland: Area from which a port gets most of its exports. • Horse latitudes: Subtropical belt of high pressure over the oceans. • Humidity: State of the atmosphere with respect to the water vapour it contains. • Humus: Decomposed and partly decomposed organic matter in the soil. • Hyetograph: A self-recording rain‑gauge. • Hygrophyte: Plant growing in wetlands. • Illuviation: Deposition, in the lower soil horizon, of material removed by alluviation from the upper horizons of the soil. • Insolation: Energy radiated from the sun received by the earth. • Intertropical convergence zone or intertropical front: Zone of low atmospheric

Geography

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

• •

pressure near the equator where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge. Intrazonal soil: Soil which has been influenced in its development less by climate and vegetation than by factors like parent material and drainage. Isopleth: Line drawn on the map along which the value of a particular phenomenon or product is uniform. Isanomal: Isopleth of anomaly. Isarithm: Any line representing continuous value on maps. Isobars: Lines of equal depth in sea. Isonaths: Lines of joining places experiencing a thunderstorm at the same time. Isochrones: Lines joining places located at equal travel time from a common centre. Isogonals: Lines joining places with same magnetic declination. Isohalines: Isopleths of salinity. Isohels: Isopleths of equal amount of sunshine. Isohyets: Isopleths of rainfall. Isohypse or contour lines: Isopleths of elevation above sea level. Isonif: Isopleth of amount of snow. Isorymes: Line of equal frost. Isoseismals: Lines of equal seismic activity. Isotherms: Isopleths of temperature. Isthmus: A narrow strip of land joining two land masses, viz. the Isthmus of Panama joining North and South America. Karst region or Karstland: Limestone region in which most of the drainage is underground, the surface being dry and barren. Katabatic wind: Local wind caused by the flow of air down mountain slopes and valleys. Lagoon: Part of sea partially cut off from it by deposits of sand or coral reefs. Lapse rate: The rate of change of temperature in atmosphere with height. Leaching: The process by which soluble substances are washed out of the upper layers of the soils into lower layers by percolating rainwater. Leeward: The side or direction sheltered from the wind. Loess: A deposit of fine silt or dust generally held to have been transported to its present situation by wind.

203

• Lunar month: The interval of time in which the moon makes one complete revolution around the earth–about 29.5 days. • Mesophyte: A plant that requires a moderate amount of moisture. Most common trees and shrubs are mesophytes. • Mestizo: Offspring of a European and an American Indian–the term is used mostly in South America. • Monsoon: A type of wind system in which there is complete reversal or almost so, of prevailing wind direction from season to season. • Moraine: The debris or fragments of rock material brought down with the movement of glacier. • Mulatto: The debris or fragments of rock material brought down with the movement of glacier. • Mulatto: The offspring of a white and a black person, commonly used in America. • Nivation: Erosion due to action of snow. • Nomadism: The practice, among certain primitive people, of frequently changing their habitation. • Oasis: Area in the desert where water is available. • Orbit: Path of a heavenly body through space in relation to some selected point. • Orographic rain: Rain caused by mountains standing in the path of moisture-laden winds. • Outwash Plain: Alluvial plain formed by streams originating from the melting ice of a glacier. • Pastoralism: Practice of breeding and rearing cattle. • Pedology: The science of the study of soils. • Peninsula: A stretch of land almost surrounded by water. • Permafrost: Ground that is permanently frozen. • Petrology: The study of the composition, structure and history of rocks forming the crust of the earth. • Phenology: Science dealing with the effects of seasonal changes upon animal and plant life. • Piedmont: Belonging to or related to the foot of a mountain.

204

General Knowledge  2020

• Plateau: Extensive level or near level area of elevated land. • Precipitation: Falling of water (in liquid or solid form, as the case may be) from the atmosphere to the earth. • Pressure gradient: Rate at which pressure declines horizontally on the earth’s surface. • Radiation: Process by which a body emits radiant energy, viz.–in the form of heat. • Rain shadow: Area having relatively lower average rainfall. • Reef: Ridge of rocks lying near the surface of the sea, which may be visible at low tide, but usually covered by water. • Reg: A stony desert. A sandy desert is called a reg. • Saprophyte: A plant which lives on decaying organic matter. • Satellite: A relatively small body revolving around a planet. • Sericulture: The culture of silkworms for production of raw silk. • Sidereal day: The period of time during which a star describes a complete circle in its apparent journey around the pole star, representing the period of one rotation of the earth on its axis and equal to 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. It is thus about 4 minutes shorter than the mean solar day. • Sleet: Precipitation consisting of a mixture of snow and rain. • Smog: Fog heavily laden with smoke. • Snow-line: Lower limit of perpetual snow. • Solar constant: Intensity of the sun’s radiation in space at the mean distance of the earth from the sun. • Solar day: The average period taken by the earth in making one rotation on its axis in relation to the sun–24 hours. • Strait: Narrow stretch of sea connecting two extensive areas of sea. • Syncline: Trough or inverted arch of a fold in rock strata. • Sublimation: Change of state of water from solid to vapour directly or vice versa. • Taiga: Coniferous forest land of Siberia.

• Tidal range: Average difference in water level between high and low tide at one place. • Trans-humane: Practice among pastoral communities to move with their animal seasonally between two regions of different climate. • Tributary: A smaller river which joins a larger river. • Tropophyte: A plant which acts as a hygrophyte in one season and xerophyte in the other. • Tsunami: A large sea wave caused by an earthquake originating on the seabed. • Van Allen’s Radiation Belts: Named after the physicist who discovered them, these are two bands of the outermost layer of the atmosphere (magnetosphere), at heights of 3,000 km and 16,000 km above the earth’s surface. Here the ionized particles trapped by the earth’s magnetic field from the solar radiation, concentrate. • Viticulture: The culture of grape vine. • Watershed: Elevated boundary line separating headstreams which are tributaries to different river systems or basins. • Weathering: Decay and disintegration of rocks of the earth’s crust by exposure to the atmosphere; it is one of the main processes of denudation. • Willy-wily: Tropical cyclone in the Pacific near the east coast of Australia. • Wind vane: Instrument used to indicate the direction of the wind. • Yazoo river: Tributary which is prevented from joining the main river because the latter has built up high natural levees; it thus runs parallel to the main stream for a considerable distance before joining it downstream. • Zenith: Point in the celestial sphere vertically above one’s head. • Zonal soil: A soil which owes its well developed characteristics largely to the influence of climate and vegetation. • Zoophyte: An animal which resembles a plant, viz. a coral polyp or a sponge. 

Environment and Ecology

207

Environment ‘Environment’ is a term derived from the French word ‘Environner’ that means ‘to surround’. There was a time when the environment just meant surroundings. It was used to describe the physical world surrounding us, including soil, rocks, water and air. Gradually, it was realised that the enormous variety of plants, animals and micro-organisms on this earth, including human beings are an integral part of the environment. Hence, to make a sensible definition of environment, it was necessary to include the interactions and interrelationships of all living organisms with the physical surroundings. As per the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, environment includes all the physical and biological surroundings of an organism along with their interactions. Environment is, thus, defined as ‘the sum total of water, air and land and the inter-relationships that exist among them and with the human beings, other living organisms and materials’. Environment Calendar World Wetland Day

February 2

World Forest Day

March 21

World Day for Water

March 22

World Meteorological Day

March 23

Earth Day

April 22

International Biodiversity Day

May 22

Anti-tobacco Day

May 31

World Environment Day

June 5

World Ocean Day

June 8

World Population Day

July 11

Ozone Week

Sept. 16–23

World Car-free Day

Sept. 22

Green Consumer Day

Sept. 28

World Farm Animal’s Day

Oct. 2

World Habitat Day

Oct. 3

World Animal Welfare Day

Oct. 4

Wildlife Week

Oct. 1–7

International Day for Natural Disaster Reduction

Oct. 13

World Conservation Day

Oct. 24

International Day for Biological Diversity

Dec. 29

Types of Environment

Environment can be classified into three broad types: (a) Biotic (living): The word ‘biotic’ refers to having to do with living organisms. Biotic elements refer to the biological component of the ecosystem, consisting of population of plants, animals and micro-organisms in complex communities. The biotic factors influencing an organism, viruses and other parasytic organisms cause diseases. These are all parts of an organism’s biotic environment. The biotic component of the ecosystem consists of three distinct groups of organisms, the producers, consumers and decomposers. The producers are those organisms capable of photosynthesis, production of organic material solely from solar lift and carbon dioxide. The consumers are organisms whose very survival depends on the organic material manufactured by the producers. The last group of living organisms are the decomposers. These include micro-organisms, such as fungi, bacteria, yeast, etc. as well as

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a diversity of worms, insects and many other small animals. (b) Abiotic: Abiotic factors include the flow of energy necessary to maintain any organism, the physical factors that affect it and the supply of molecules required for its life functions. Other physical factors include climate, temperature, precipitation, including its types (rain, snow, hill) around and seasonable distribution, types of soil present (sandy or clay, dry or wet, fertile or infertile). In the ecosystem, the abiotic (non-living) components perform important function of providing water and oxygen for organisms. Second, they act as a reservoir of the six most important elements for life, carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), sulphur (S) and phosphorus (P). (c) Cultural: The stage of development that human beings have attained in the path towards progress will determine their culture as the way of life. Human interaction with environment also influences the ecosystem. People of different cultures view their place in society from different angles. Among the factors that can shape their views are religious understandings, economic pressures and fundamental knowledge of nature. Due to this diversity of background different cultures put different values on the natural world. But the general attitude has been one of development rather than preservation. Technology has been the key to human progress. Technology has also increased the quantity of environmental degradation. Human interaction with the environment has increased very fast of. Components of Environment Abiotic

Biotic

Energy

Green Plants

Radiation

Non-Green Plants

Temperature & heat flow Water

Decomposers Parasites

Atmospheric gases and wind

Symbionts

Gravity & Fire

Man

Topography & Soil

Animals

Geologic Substratum

Ecology The word ‘ecology’ is derived from the Greek word ‘oikos’ meaning habitation, and ‘logos’ meaning discourse or study, implies a study of the habitations of organisms. Ecology was first described as a sepearate field of knowledge in 1866 by the German Zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who invented the word ‘ecology’ for the relation of the animal to its organic as well as its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes in contact. Ecology has been variously defined by other investigators as ‘scientific natural history’, ‘the study of biotic communities’ or ‘the science of community population’, probably the most comprehensive definition is ‘the study of animal and plants in their relations to each other and to their environment’.

Ecosystem

An assemblage of species of plants and animals inhabiting a common area and having effects on one another is known as a ‘biotic community’. A combination of a biotic community with the natural or physical environment is known as an ecosystem. The term ‘ecosystem’ implies a local community of organisms interacting with their local non-living environment. In other words, the interdependence of living and non-living aspects, i.e., plants, animals, man, forest, soil, etc. make an ecosystem. It is defined as a unit which includes all the organisms (biological component) in a given area interacting with the environment (physical component) so that the flow of energy leads to a clearly defined tropic

Environment and Ecology

(nutrient supply) structure biotic diversity and material cycles.

Functions of an Ecosystem

1. E c o s y s t e m p e r f o r m s t h e m o s t important function of satisfying the requirements of the different aspects of the biotic component. 2. It is through an ecosystem that the interaction as well as interdependence between the biological component and the physical component in the environment takes place, this interdependence is between abiotic and biotic components. For example, plants depend on solar energy and soil. The interdependence is also between different aspects within the biotic components. For example, the carnivores depend on herbivores. 3. Ecosystem leads to transfer of food energy and nutrients from one source to another source. 4. The different forms of ecosystem are beneficial because they lead to positive effects on the environment, which, in turn, helps the living organisms. 5. Ecosystems have helped human beings by providing materials as well as services necessary for survival as well as development.

Biodiversity • ‘Biological diversity’ or ‘biodiversity’ refers to numbers, variety, and variability of living organisms and ecosystems. • The term ‘biodiversity’ includes all terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic organisms. • It also covers diversity within species, between species, as well as the variation among ecosystems. • It is concerned also with their complex ecological interrelationships.

Types of Biodiversity

I. Genetic diversity: It refers to variation of genes within species. Each member of any animal or plant species differs widely from other individuals in its genetic make-up because of the large

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number of combinations possible in the genes that give every individual specific characteristics. II. Species diversity: The number of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitutes its species diversity. This diversity is seen both in natural ecosystems and in agricultural ecosystems. Some areas are richer in species than others. Natural undisturbed tropical forests have much greater species richness than plantations developed by the Forest Department for timber production. III. Ecosystem diversity: There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, which have their own complement of distinctive interlinked species based on the differences in the habitat. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region or a political entity, such as a country, a state or a taluka. Distinctive ecosystems include landscapes, such as forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc., as well as aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, and the sea. Each region also has man-modified areas, such as farmland or grazing pastures. Biogeographic classification of India 1. Trans-Himalayan zone 2. Himalayan zone 3. Desert zone 4. Semiarid zone 5. Western ghat zone 6. Deccan plateau zone 7. Gangetic plain zone 8. North east zone 9. Coastal zone 10. Islands present near the shore line

Protected Area

An area declared under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the protection of wildlife in India. As today, there are four types of protected areas in India, namely: (a) National Park: A large area which receive highest level of protection under

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Section 35 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of wildlife is called National Park. There are, about more than 100 national parks in India. In Chhattisgarh, there are 4 nationalparks. (b) Wildlife Sanctuary: A large area which received medium level of protection under Section 18A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of wildlife is called Wildlife Sanctuary. There are about more than 500 wildlife sanctuaries in India. In Chhattisgarh, there are 11 wildlife sanctuaries. (c) Conservation Reserve: A small area owned by the government located very adjacent to a national park or wildlife sanctuary, which received medium level of protection under Section 36A of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of wildlife is called ‘Conservation Reserve’. (d) Community Reserve: A small area owned by the local people located very adjacent to a village area which received medium level of protection under Section 36C of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the conservation of wildlife is called Community Reserve. There are more than 100 National Parks and more than 500 Wildlife Sanctuaries in India.

NTCA The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is a body constituted by the Central Government of India under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 for the maintenance of a viable population of tigers in India through declaration and management of Tiger Reserve.

Tiger Reserve

There were about 40,000 tigers during 1905– 10. This number came down drastically due to large-scale hunting during the British Period as well as after Independence in India. The firstever All-India Tiger Census

was conducted in 1972, which revealed the existence of only 1,872 tigers in India. In 1969, a serious concern was voiced about the low population of tiger at the IUCN meeting held in Delhi. Subsequently, a nationwide ban on tiger killing was imposed in 1970. In 1972, the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 came into force and the Tiger Project was initiated in 1973.

Objectives of the reserve

• Elimination of all forms of human exploi­ tation and biotic disturbance from the core area and rationalisation of activities in the buffer zone. • Restricting the habitat management only to repair the damages done to the ecosystem by human and other interferences. • Monitoring the faunal and floral changes over time and carrying out research about wildlife.

Project Elephant Project Elephant was launched in 1992 to assist the state having free-ranging population of wild Asian Elephants to ensure long-term survival of identified viable population of elephants in their natural habitats.

Objectives of the Elephant Project

• • • • •

The elephant reserve has the following objectives: To restore the lost and degraded habitat of elephants. To create/manage corridors for elephant movement. To mitigate human-elephant conflict. To establish the database on the population dynamics of elephants. To improve the quality of life of people living around elephant habitats. Biosphere Reserve: A biosphere reserve is a kind of conservation reserve created to protect the biological and cultural diversity of a region while promoting sustainable economic development. A biosphere reserve

Environment and Ecology

is a unique kind of protected area that differs from a PA (NP, WLS). There are three very different, but equal, aims: • Conservation of genetic resources, species, and ecosystems; • Scientific research and monitoring; and • Promoting sustainable development in communities of the surrounding region. National parks and other kinds of protected natural areas usually are primarily concerned with conservation, and only secondarily with research and sustainable development. Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as ‘living laboratories’ for testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land, water and biodiversity.

Zones A biosphere reserve must contain three elements:

Core Areas

These areas are securely protected sites for conserving biological diversity, monitoring minimally disturbed ecosystems, and undertaking non-destructive research and other low-impact uses (such as education).

Buffer Zones

These usually surround or adjoin the Core Areas. Buffer Zones may be used for sound ecological practices including environmental education, recreation, ecotourism and applied and basic research.

Transition, or Cooperation, Zones

These areas may contain towns, farms, fisheries, and other human activities and are the areas where local communities, management agencies, scientists, nongovernmental organisations, cultural groups, economic interests, and other stakeholders work together to manage and sustainably develop the area’s resources.

Pollution Pollution occurs when pollutants contaminate the natural surroundings; which brings about changes that affect our normal

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lifestyles adversely. Pollutants are the key elements or components of pollution, which are generally waste materials of different forms. Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the balance in the environment. With modernisation and development in our lives, pollution has reached its peak; giving rise to global warming and human illness.

Types of Pollution Air Pollution Air pollution is the most prominent and dangerous form of pollution. It occurs due to many reasons. Excessive burning of fuel, which is a necessity of our daily lives for cooking, driving and other industrial activities, releases a huge amount of chemical substances in the air everyday. These pollute the air. Water Pollution Water pollution has taken toll of all the surviving species of the earth. Almost 60% of the species live in water bodies. It occurs due to several factors. The industrial wastes dumped into the rivers and other water bodies cause an imbalance in the water, leading to its severe contamination and death of aquatic species. If you suspect that nearby water sources have been contaminated by a corporation, then it might be a good idea to hire an expert to see to it. Soil pollution Soil pollution occurs due to incorporation of unwanted chemicals in the soil due to human activities. Use of insecticides and pesticides absorbs the nitrogen compounds from the soil, making it unfit for plants to derive nutrition from. Release of industrial waste, mining and deforestation also exploits the soil. Since plants can’t grow properly, they can’t hold the soil and this leads to soilerosion. Noise pollution Noise pollution is caused when noise, which is an unpleasant sound, affects our ears and leads to psychological problems, like

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stress, hypertension, hearing impairment, etc. It is caused by machines in industries, loud music, etc. Radioactive pollution Radioactive pollution is highly dangerous when it occurs. It can occur due to nuclear plant malfunctions, improper nuclear waste disposal, accidents, etc. It causes cancer, infertility, blindness, defects at the time of birth. It can sterilise soil and affect air and water. Thermal/heat pollution Thermal/heat pollution is due to the excess heat in the environment creating unwanted changes over long time periods; due to huge number of industrial plants, deforestation and air pollution. It increases the earth’s temperature, causing drastic climatic changes and extinction of wildlife. Light pollution Light pollution occurs due to prominent excess illumination of an area. It is largely visible in big cities, on advertising boards and billboards, in sports or entertainment events at the night. In residential areas, the lives of the inhabitants are greatly affected by this. It also affects the astronomical observations and activities by making the stars almost invisible.

Effects of Pollution

1. Environment Degradation: Environ­ ment is the first casualty for increase in pollution, whether in air or in water. The increase in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere leads to smog, which can restrict sunlight from reaching the earth, thus, preventing plants in the process of photosynthesis. Gases like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide can cause acid rain. Water pollution in terms

of oil spill may lead to death of several wildlife species. 2. Human Health: The decrease in quality of air leads to several respiratory problems including asthma or lung cancer. Chest pain, congestion, throat inflammation, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease are some of the diseases that can be caused by air pollution. Water pollution occurs due to contamination of water and may pose skin-related problems, including skin irritations and rashes. Similarly, noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress and sleep disturbance. 3. Global Warming: The emission of greenhouse gases, particularly CO2 is leading to global warming. Every other day, new industries are being set up, new vehicles come on roads and trees are cut to make way for new homes. All of them, in direct or indirect way, lead to increase in CO2 in the environment. The increase in CO2 leads to melting of polar ice caps, which increases the sea level and poses danger for the people living near the coastal areas. 4. Ozone Layer Depletion: Ozone layer is the thin shield high up in the sky that stops ultra-violet rays from reaching the earth. As a result of human activities, chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were released into the atmosphere, which contributed to the depletion of ozonelayer. 5. Infertile Land: Due to constant use of insecticides and pesticides, the soil may become infertile. Plants may not be able to grow properly. Various forms of chemicals produced from industrial waste are released into the flowing water, which also affects the quality of soil.

List of Biosphere Reserves of India S. No.

Year

Name

State

Type

Key Fauna

1. 2008

Great Rann of Kutch

Gujarat

Desert

Indian Wild Ass

2. 1989

Gulf of Mannar

Tamil Nadu

Coast

Dugong or Sea Cow

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3. 1989

Sundarbans

West Bengal

Gangetic Delta

Royal Bengal Tiger

4. 2009

Cold Desert

Himachal Pradesh

Western Himalayas

Snow leopard

5. 1988

Nanda Devi

Uttarakhand

Western Himalayas

NA

6. 1986

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

Tamil Nadu, Kerala Western Ghats and Karnataka

Nilgiri Tahr, Liontailed macaque

7.

1998

Dihang-Dibang

Arunachal Pradesh Eastern Himalaya

NA

8.

1999

Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve

Madhya Pradesh

Semi-arid

Giant squirrel, Flying squirrel

9.

2010

Seshachalam Hills

Andhra Pradesh

Eastern Ghats

NA

10.

1994

Simlipal

Odisha

Deccan Peninsula

Gaur, Royal Bengal Tiger, Wild elephant

11.

2005

AchanakamarAmarkantak

Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh

Maikala Hills

NA

12.

1989

Manas

Assam

East Himalayas

Golden langur, Red panda

13.

2000

Khangchendzonga

Sikkim

East Himalayas

Snow leopard, Red panda

14.

2001

Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve

Kerala, Tamil Nadu Western Ghats

Nilgiri Tahr, Elephants

15.

1989

Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve

Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Islands

Saltwater crocodile

16.

1988

Nokrek

Meghalaya

East Himalayas

Red panda

17.

1997

Dibru-Saikhowa

Assam

East Himalayas

Golden langur

18.

2011

Panna

Madhya Pradesh

Ken River

Tiger,Chital, Chinkara, Sambharand sloth bear

List of Wildlife Sanctuaries, National Parks in India

Sanctuaries/National Parks

States

Hazaribagh Sanctuary

Hazaribagh (Jharkhand)

Indian Wild Ass Sanctuary

Rann of Kutch (Gujarat)

Sanctuaries/National Parks

States

Bandipur National Park

Karnataka

Buxa Tiger Reserve

West Bengal

Bandhavgarh National Park

Madhya Pradesh

Jaldapara National Park

West Bengal

Corbett National Park

Uttarakhand

Chandraprabha Sanctuary

Uttar Pradesh

Keoladeo Ghana National Park

Bharatpur (Rajasthan)

Dandeli Wildlife Sanctuary

Karnataka

Keibul Lamjao National Park

Manipur

Dachigam Sanctuary

Kashmir

Kanha National Park

Madhya Pradesh

Dudhwa National Park

Uttar Pradesh

Karakoram Wildlife Sanctuary

Jammu and Kashmir

Gir National Park

Gujarat

Kaziranga National Park

Assam

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General Knowledge  2020 Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary

Ahmedabad (Gujarat)

Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary

Nellore (Andhra Pradesh)

Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary

Tamil Nadu

Karnataka

Ranganthittu Bird Sanctuary

Karnataka

Bhandare (Maharashtra)

Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary

Gurgaon (Haryana)

Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary

Chorao Island (Goa)

Vedanthangal Bird Sanctuary

Tamil Nadu

Sanctuaries/National Parks

States

Manas National Park

Assam

Mudumalai National Park

Tamil Nadu

Nokrek National Park

Meghalaya

Namdapha National Park

Arunachal Pradesh

Nagarhole National Park Nawegoan National Park Periyar Sanctuary

Kerala

Panchmarhi

Hoshangabad (Madhya Pradesh)

Ranthambore National Park

Rajasthan

Rohla National Park

Kullu (Madhya Pradesh)

Sunderban Tiger Reserve

West Bengal

Sariska National Park

Rajasthan

Simlipal National Park

Tiger Reserves in India Tiger Reserve

State

1.

Bandipur Tiger Reserve

Karnataka

2.

Jim Corbett Tiger Reserve

Uttarakhand

Odisha

3.

Madhya Pradesh

Tadoba National Park

Chandrapur (Maharashtra)

Kanha Tiger Reserve

4.

Assam

Tadwai Sanctuary

Warrangal (Andhra Pradesh)

Manas Tiger Reserve

5.

Melghat Tiger Reserve

Maharashtra

Tungabhadra Sanctuary

Bellary (Karnataka)

6.

Palamau Tiger Reserve

Jharkhand

7.

Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

Rajasthan

8.

Similipal Tiger Reserve

Odisha

9.

Sunderbans Tiger Reserve

West Bengal

List of Bird Sanctuaries in India

S.No.

Bird Sanctuaries in India

Location

Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary (also known as Keoladeo National Park)

Rajasthan

Chilka Lake Bird Sanctuary

Puri (Odisha)

10.

Periyar Tiger Reserve

Kerala

Ghatprabha Bird Sanctuary

Karnataka

11.

Sariska Tiger Reserve

Rajasthan

Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary (also known as Vembanad Bird Sanctuary)

Kerala

12.

Buxa Tiger Reserve

West Bengal

13.

Indravati Tiger Reserve

Chhattisgarh

Kaundinya Bird Sanctuary

Chittor (Andhra Pradesh)

14.

Namdapha Tiger Reserve

Arunachal Pradesh

Mayani Bird Sanctuary

Satara (Maharashtra)

15.

Dudhwa Tiger Reserve

Uttar Pradesh

Environment and Ecology 16.

Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve

Tamil Nadu

17.

Valmiki Tiger Reserve

Bihar

18.

Pench Tiger Reserve

Madhya Pradesh

19.

Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve

Maharashtra

20.

Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve

Madhya Pradesh

21.

Panna Tiger Reserve Madhya Pradesh

22.

Dampa Tiger Reserve

23.

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40.

Kawal Tiger Reserve

Telangana

41.

Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve

Tamil Nadu

42.

Mukandra Hills

Rajasthan

43.

Nawegaon-Nagzira Tiger Reserve

Maharashtra

44.

NagarjunsagarSrisailam Tiger Reserve

Telangana

45.

Amrabad Tiger Reserve

Telangana

Mizoram

46.

Pilibhit Tiger Reserve

Uttar Pradesh

Bhadra Tiger Reserve

Karnataka

47.

Bor Tiger Reserve

Maharashtra

24.

Pench Tiger Reserve

Maharashtra

48.

Rajaji Tiger Reserve

Uttarakhand

25.

Pakhui Tiger Reserve

Arunachal Pradesh

26.

Nameri Tiger Reserve

Assam

27.

Satpura Tiger Reserve

Madhya Pradesh

28.

Anamalai Tiger Reserve

Tamil Nadu

29.

Udanti-Sitanadi

Chhattisgarh

30.

Satkosia Tiger Reserve

31.

Elephant Reserves in India Elephant Reserve

State

Rayala Elephant Reserve

Andhra Pradesh

Kameng Elephant Reserve

Arunachal Pradesh

Deomali Elephant Reserve

Arunachal Pradesh

Sonitpur Elephant Reserve

Assam

Dihing-Patkai Elephant Reserve

Assam

Odisha

Kaziranga-Karbi Anglong Elephant Reserve

Assam

Kaziranga Tiger Reserve

Assam

Dhansiri-Lungding Elephant Reserve

Assam

32.

Achanakmar Tiger Reserve

Chhattisgarh

Chirang-Ripu Elephant Reserve

Assam

33.

Dandeli-Anshi National Park

Karnataka

Singhbhum Elephant Reserve

Jharkhand

Mysore Elephant Reserve

Karnataka

34.

Sanjay-Dubri Tiger Reserve

Madhya Pradesh

Bhadra Elephant Reserve

Karnataka

35.

Mudumalai Tiger Reserve

Tamil Nadu

Wayanad Elephant Reserve

Kerala

36.

Nagarahole Tiger Reserve

Karnataka

Nilambur Elephant Reserve

Kerala

Parambikulam Tiger Kerala Reserve

Anamudi Elephant Reserve

Kerala

37.

Periyar Elephant Reserve

Kerala

38.

Sahyadri

Maharashtra

Biligiriranga Swamy Temple Tiger Reserve

Karnataka

Garo Hills Elephant Reserve

Meghalaya

39.

Khasi Hills Elephant Reserve

Meghalaya

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Intanki Elephant Reserve

Nagaland

Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve

Odisha

Mahanadi Elephant Reserve

Odisha

Sambalpur Elephant Reserve

Odisha

Baitarni Elephant Reserve

Odisha

South Orissa Elephant Reserve

Odisha

Nilgiri Elephant Reserve

Tamil Nadu

Coimbatore Elephant Reserve

Tamil Nadu

Anamalai Elephant Reserve

Tamil Nadu

Srivilliputtur Elephant Reserve

Tamil Nadu

Shivalik Elephant Reserve

Uttaranchal

Mayurjharna Elephant Reserve

West Bengal

Eastern Dooars Elephant Reserve

West Bengal

Critically Endangered Animal Species of India Critically Endangered Mammals

1. Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania). 2. A n d a m a n W h i t e - t o o t h e d S h r e w (Crocidura andamanensis) 3. J e n k i n ’ s A n d a m a n S p i n y S h r e w (Crocidura jenkinsi) 4. Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) 5. Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana) 6. Large Rock Rat or Elvira Rat (Cremnomys elvira) 7. Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi) 8. Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina) 9. Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) 10. Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Critically Endangered Birds

1. Baer’s Pochard 2. Forest Owlet

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

Great Indian Bustard Bengal Florican Siberian Crane Spoon-billed Sandpiper Sociable Lapwing Jerdon’s Courser White-backed Vulture Red-headed Vulture White-bellied Heron Slender-billed Vulture Indian Vulture Himalayan Quail Pink-headed Duck

Critically Endangered Reptiles

1. Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) 2. Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) 3. Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) 4. Four-toed River Terrapin or River Terrapin (Batagur baska) 5. Red-crowned Roofed Turtle or the Bengal Roof Turtle (Batagur kachuga) 6. Sispara day gecko (Cnemaspis sis­ parensis)

Critically Endangered Amphibians

1. Anamalai Flying Frog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus) 2. Gundia Indian Frog (Indirana gundia) 3. Kerala Indian Frog (Indirana phr­ ynoderma) 4. Charles Darwin’s Frog (Ingerana charlesdarwini) 5. Kottigehar Bubble-nest Frog (Micrixalus kottigeharensis) 6. Amboli Bush Frog (Pseudophilautus amboli) 7. Chalazodes Bubble-Nest Frog (Raorchestes chalazodes) 8. Small Bush Frog (Raorchestes chotta) 9. Green-eyed Bush Frog (Raorchestes chlorosomma) 10. Griet Bush Frog (Raorchestes griet)

Critically Endangered Fishes

1. Pondicherry Shark (Carcharhinus hemiodon) 2. Ganges Shark (Glyphis gangeticus)

Environment and Ecology

3. Knife-tooth Sawfish (Anoxypristis cuspidata) 4. Large-tooth Sawfish (Pristis microdon) 5. Long-comb Sawfish or Narrow-snout Sawfish (Pristis zijsron)

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22.

Surinsar-Mansar Jammu and Kashmir Lakes

23.

Tsomoriri Lake

Jammu and Kashmir

24.

Vembanad Kol Wetland

Kerala

Critically Endangered Corals

25.

Upper Ganga River (Brijghat to Narora Stretch)

Uttar Pradesh

Critically Endangered Spiders

26.

Wular Lake

Jammu and Kashmir

1. Fire corals (Millepora boschmai)

1. R a m e s h w a r a m O r n a m e n t a l o r Rameshwaram Parachute Spider (Poecilotheria hanumavilasumica) 2. Gooty Tarantula, Metallic Tarantula or Peacock Tarantula (Poecilotheria metallica) Ramsar Wetlands Sites S.No. Name of Site

State / Location

Environmental Institutes Institution

Headquarter

Arid Zone Research Institute

Jodhpur

Central Pollution Control Board

New Delhi

Central Museum Authority

New Delhi

Rehabilitation Institute of Social Allahabad Forestry and Ecology

1.

Asthamudi Wetland

Kerala

Bhitarkanika Mangroves

Odisha

G. B. Pant Himdoya Environment and Development Institute

Almora

2. 3.

Bhoj Wetlands

Madhya Pradesh

Shimla

4.

Chandertal Wetland

Himachal Pradesh

Himalayan Forest Research Centre

Chilka Lake

Odisha

Indian Forest Research and Education Council

Dehradun

5. 6.

Deepor Beel

Assam

Bhopal

7.

East Calcutta Wetlands

West Bengal

Institute of Indian Forest Management

Bengaluru

8.

Harike Lake

Punjab

Institute of Indian Plywood Industry and Research

9.

Hokera Wetland

Jammu and Kashmir

Coimbatore

10.

Kanjli Lake

Punjab

Institute of Forest Genetic Tree Breeding

11.

Keoladeo Ghana NP

Rajasthan

Forest Productive Centre

Ranchi

12.

Kolleru Lake

Andhra Pradesh

13.

Loktak Lake

Manipur

14.

Nalsarovar Bird Sanctuary

15.

Institute of Forest Research and Chhindwara Human Resource Development Institute of Rainforest

Jorhat

Gujarat

Institute of Lumbering Science and Technology

Bengaluru

Point Calimere

Tamil Nadu

Faridabad

16.

Pong Dam Lake

Himachal Pradesh

Institute of National Science and Technology

17.

Renuka Wetland

Himachal Pradesh

Indian Botanical Survey

Kolkata

18.

Ropar Lake

Punjab

Indian Anthropology Survey

Kolkata

19.

Rudrasagar Lake

Tripura

Indian Forest Survey

Jorhat

20.

Sambhar Lake

Rajasthan

Tropical Institute

Jabalpur

21.

Sasthamkotta Lake

Kerala

Indian Polity and Constitution

221

Constitution

British Govt. All political responsibilities were given to this board.

Constitution is the foundational law of a country which ordains the fundamental principles on which the government (or the governance) of that country is based. With the exception of the United Kingdom, almost all democratic countries possess a written constitution.

• Provided for the payment of salaries of the members of the Board of Controllers from Indian revenue.

Evolution OF Indian Constitution

• Trade monopoly of the East India Company came to an end. • The Christian Missionaries were allowed to spread their religion in India.

The first Constitution of India framed and given to themselves by the people of India was adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949. It came into full operation with effect from 26 January 1950. The Constitution as originally adopted had 22 parts, 395 articles and 8 schedules.

Administrative and Legislative Reforms before 1857 Regulating Act of 1773

• Governance of the East India Company was put under British parliamentary control. • The Governor of Bengal was nominated as Governor-General for all the three Presidencies of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. Warren Hastings was the first such Governor-General. • A Supreme Court was established in Calcutta (now Kolkata).

Pitts India Act of 1784

• It was enacted to improve upon the provision of Regulating Act of 1773. • A six-member Board of Controllers was set up which was headed by a minister of the

Charter Act of 1793

Charter Act of 1813

Charter Act of 1833

• The Governor-General and his Council were given vast powers. • The Council got full powers regarding revenue, and a single budget for the country was prepared by the Governor-General. • For the first time the Governor-General’s Government was known as the ‘Government of India’ and his Council as the ‘Indian Council’. • The Governor-General of Bengal was to be the Governor-General of India. • All powers, administrative and financial, were handed over to Governor-General in Council. • A Law Commission under Lord Macaulay was constituted for codification of laws.

Charter Act of 1853

• A separate Governor for Bengal was to be appointed. • Recruitment of the Company’s employees was to be done through competitive exams. • British Parliament was empowered to put Company’s governance of India to an end at any suitable time. • It introduced for the first time, local repre­ sentation in the Indian (Central) Legislate Council.

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Administrative and Legislative Reforms After 1857 Government of India Act, 1858

• British Crown decided to assume sovereignty over India from the East India Company in an apparent consequence of the Revolt of 1857. • It provided for absolute (British) imperial control over India without any popular participation in the administration of the country. • The country was divided into provinces headed by a Governor or LieutenantGovernor aided by his Executive Council. • All the authority for the governance of India was vested in the Governor-General in Council who was responsible to the Secretary of State. • The Secretary of State was ultimately responsible to the British Parliament. • The power was transferred from Company to the British Crown. • Court of Directors and Board of Control were abolished. The post of Secretary of State was established. Secretary of State was member of British Cabinet and answerable to British Parliament. • The Governor-General was made the Viceroy of India.

Indian Councils Act, 1861

• The Secretary of State, who was responsible to the British Parliament, governed India through the Governor-General assisted by an Executive Council. • It decentralised the legislative powers of the Governor-General’s Council and vested them in the Governments of Bombay and Madras. • The Viceroy could now also nominate some Indians as non-official members in his council. • It made a beginning of representative institutions by associating Indians with the law-making process. • The Executive Council was now to be called the Central Legislative Council. • Portfolio System, which was introduced by Lord Canning in 1859, was given recognition.

• The Viceroy was given the power to issue ordinances.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

• The non-official members of the Indian Legislative Council were to be nominated by the Bengal Chamber of Commerce and the Provincial Legislative Councils while the non-official members of the Provincial Councils were to be nominated by certain local bodies such as universities, district boards, municipalities, zamindars, etc. • It brought an element of representation for the first time by allowing a discussion of budget.

Morley-Minto Reforms and the Indian Councils Act, 1909

• The size of Provincial Legislative Councils was enlarged by including elected nonofficial members so that the official majority was gone. • An element of election was also introduced in the Legislative Council at the Centre also but here the official majority there was maintained. • The members of the Legislative Council could ask supplementary questions, discuss bills, move resolutions on financial statements and so on. • The Muslims were given separate electorates and there were reservations of seats on religious grounds. • Satyendra Prasad Sinha became the first Indian to join the Viceroy’s Executive Council.

The Government of India Act, 1915

• This Act was passed to consolidate the provisions of the preceding Government of India Acts.

Montague-Chelmsford Report and the Government of India Act, 1919

• Responsible government in the Provinces was to be introduced, without impairing the responsibility of the Governor (through the Governor-General), for the administration of the Province, by resorting to device known as ‘Dyarchy’ or dual government. • The subjects of administration were to be divided into two categories Central and Provincial.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• The provincial subjects were sub-divided into ‘transferred’ and ‘reserved’ subjects. • The ‘transferred subjects’ were to be administered by the Governor with the aid or Ministers responsible to the Legislative Council. • The ‘reserved subjects’ were to be admini­ stered by the Governor and his Executive Council. • The provincial budget was separated from the central budget. • The provincial legislature was empowered to present its own budget and levy its own taxes relating to the provincial sources of revenue. • The Central Legislature, retained power to legislate for the whole country on any subject. • The control of the Governor General over provincial legislation was retained by providing that a Provincial Bill, even though assented to by the Governor, would become law only when assented to also by the Governor-General. • The Indian Legislature was made more representative and for the first time ‘bi-cameral’. • The Upper House was named the Council of State. • T h e L o w e r H o u s e w a s n a m e d t h e Legislative Assembly. • The Governor-General’s overriding powers in respect of Central legislation were retained as follows: (a) His prior sanction was required to introduce Bills relating to certain matters. (b) He had the power to veto or reserve for consideration of the Crown any Bill passed by the Indian Legislature. (c) He had the converse power of certifying Bill or any grant refused by the Legislature. (d) He could make Ordinances, in case of emergency.

Simon Commission

• This commission, headed by Sir John Simon, constituted in 1927 to inquire into the working of the Act of 1919, placed it report in 1930.

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The Government of India Act, 1935

• The Act of 1935 prescribed a federation, taking the Provinces and the Indian States (native states) as units. • The Act divided legislative powers between the Centre and Provinces. • The executive authority of a Province was also exercised by a Governor on behalf of the Crown and not as a subordinate of the Governor-General. • In certain matters, the Governor was required to act ‘in his discretion’ without ministerial advice and under the control and directions of the Governor-General, and, through him, of the Secretary of State. • The executive authority of the Centre was vested in the Governor-General (on behalf of the Crown). • In six provinces, the legislature was bi-cameral. • Apart from the Governor-General’s power of veto, a Bill passed by the Central Legislature was also subject to veto by the Crown. • The Governor-General had independent powers of legislation concurrently with those of the Legislature without the GovernorGeneral’s previous sanction. • A three-fold division in the Act of 1935– There was a Federal List over which the Federal Legislature had exclusive powers of legislation. There was a Provincial List of matters over which the Provincial Legislature had exclusive jurisdiction. There was a Concurrent List also over which both the Federal and Provincial Legislature had competence. • Dominion Status, which was promised by the Simon Commission in 1929, was not conferred by the Government of India Act, 1935. • Dyarchy was abolished in the provinces, but it was introduced at the federal level. • It provided for the establishment of an AllIndia Federation consisting of provinces and princely states as unit but the federation did not come into effect. • It introduced bicameralism in 6 out of 11 provinces. • The Federal Legislature had two Chambers: The Council of State and Federal Assembly.

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General Knowledge  2020

The Council of State was to be a permanent body with one-third of its members, retiring every two years. • It further extended the principle of communal representation by providing separate electorates for depressed classes, women and labour. • It provided for the establishment of a Reserve Bank of India to control the currency and credit of the country. • It provided for the establishment of a Federal Public Service Commission and Joint Public Service Commission for two or more provinces.

Cripps Mission

• In March 1942, Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the British Cabinet came with a draft declaration on the proposals of the British Government. • According to the proposals the Constitution of India was to be framed by an elected Constituent Assemble by the India people. • T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n sho ul d g i ve I nd i a Dominion Status. • There should be one Indian Union comprising all the Provinces and Indian States. • Any Province (or Indian State) not accepting, the Constitution would be free to retain its constitutional position existing at that time and with such non-acceding Provinces the British Government could enter into separate Constitutional arrangements.

Cabinet Mission Plan, 1946

• In March 1946, Lord Attlee sent a Cabinet Mission to India consisting of three Cabinet Ministers, namely Lord Pethick Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and Mr. A.V. Alexander. • According to Cabinet Mission Plan, there was to be a Union of India, comprising both British India and the States, and having jurisdiction over the subjects of Foreigh Affairs, Defence and Communication. All residuary powers were to be vested in Provinces and the States. • The Union was to have an Executive and a Legislature consisting of representatives of the Provinces and the States.

• The Provinces could form groups with executives and legislatures, and each group could be competent to determine the provincial subjects. • India was too divided into three groups of provinces, Group A, Group B, and Group C. • The plan provided that the Union Constitution was to be framed by a Constituent Assembly, the members of which were to be elected on a communal basis by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies and the representatives of the states joining the Union.

The Mountbatten Plan

• The plan for transfer of power to the Indians and partition of the country was laid down in the Mountbatten Plan. • It was given a formal shape by a statement made by the British Government on 3rd June 1947.

The Indian Independence Act, 1947 of the British Parliament

• From the 15 August 1947 India ceased to be a Dependency, and the suzerainty of the British Crown over the Indian States and the treaty relations with Tribal Areas lapsed from that date. • The office of the Secretary of State for India was abolished. • The Central Legislature of India, composed of the Legislative Assembly and the Council of States, ceased to exist on August 14, 1947. • The Constituent Assembly itself was to function also as the Central Legislature with complete sovereignty. • The Interim Government of India, formed on September 2, 1946, from the newly elected Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of assisting the transfer of power from British rule to Independent India.

Constituent Assembly and Making of the Constitution • T h e C a b i n e t M i s s i o n e n v i s a g e d t h e establishment of a Constituent Assembly to frame a Constitution for the country. Members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the Provincial Legislative Assemblies. • After the partition of India number of members of the Constituent Assembly came to 299, of

Indian Polity and Constitution

• •

• •

• • • •

whom 284 were actually present of the 26 November 1949 and signed on the finally approved Constitution of India Assembly, which had been elected for undivided India, held its first meeting on December 9, 1946, and reassembled on August 14, 1947, as the sovereign Constituent Assembly for the dominion of India. It took two years, eleven months and eighteen days for the Constituent Assembly to finalise the Constitution. Objective Resolution was moved in the first session of the Constituent Assembly (on 13 December 1946) by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. The following objectives were embodied in the resolution: The Assembly appointed the Drafting Committee with Dr. B.R. Ambedkar as the Chairman on August 29, 1947. The members of the Drafting Committee were N. Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayya, K.M. Munshi, Mohd. Saadullah, B.L. Mitter (later replaced by N. Madhava Rao), and Dr. D.P. Khaitan (replaced on death by T.T. Krishnamachari). The third and final reading of the draft was completed on November 26, 1949. On this date, the signature of the President of the Assembly was appended to it and the Constitution was declared as passed. The provisions relating to citizenship, elections and provisional Parliament, etc. were implemented with immediate effect, that is, from the 26 November 1949. The rest of the provisions of the Constitution came into force on January 26, 1950 and this date is referred to in the Constitution as the date of its commencement. Dr. Sachidanand Sinha was the first President of the Constituent Assembly. Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected the President of the Assembly. B.N. Rao was appointed as the Constitutional Advisor of the Assembly. On November 26, 1949, the Constitution was declared as passed. The provisions relating to citizenship, elections and provisional, Parliament, etc. were implemented with

225

immediate effect, that is, from the November 26, 1949. The rest of the provisions came into force on January 26, 1950.

Drafting Committee

• The Constituent Assembly appointed a Drafting Commitee on August 29, 1947. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, who was the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, submitted a Drafting Constitution of India to the President of the Assembly on February 21, 1948.

Enactment of the Constitution

• On November 26, 1949, Constitution was adopted, containing Preamble and 395 Articles, 18 Parts and 8 Schedules. The Constitution in its current form consists of a Preamble, 24 Parts, 448 Articles and 12 Schedules.

Enforcement of the Constitution

• The Constitution came into force on January 26, 1950, was specifically chosen as the “date of Commencement” of the Constitution because on this day in 1930, the Poorna Swaraj day was celebrated [Resolution was passed in Lahore Session (1929) of INC]. Committee Name

Headed by

Union Power Committee

Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

Union Constitution Committee

Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

Provincial Constitution Committee

Sardar Patel

Drafting Committee

Dr. Bhim Rao Ambedkar

Advisory Committee on Fundamental Rights Minorities and Tribal and Excluded Areas

Sardar Patel

Rules of Procedure Committe

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

State Committee

Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru

Steering Committee

Dr. Rajendra Prasad

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General Knowledge  2020

Salient features of the constitution

• Lengthiest written constitution: The Indian constitution is the lengthiest in the world. Originally the constitution had 395 articles and 8 schedules. • Blend of rigidity and flexibility: The procedure of amendment of the Indian constitution is partly flexible and partly rigid. some provisions can be amended easily and some provisions can only be amended by passage in both union parliament and half of the state legislatures.

PaRliAmentary Government

• India has a parliamentary system of government both at the centre and at the states. The president is the head of the union of India and the Governors are head of the states but they act on the advice of the council of ministers. They have nominal powers. • Federal system with unitary features: Our constitution contains federal features of government like division of powers written constitution, independent judiciary and bicameralism but a large number of unitary features like a strong center, single citizenship flexibility of constitution, integrated judiciary emergency provisions etc.

emergency. During the emergency the central Government becomes powerful and state comes under total control of it. During emergency our federal system becomes unitary without any amendment of the constitution.

Independent Judiciary

• There is a single, integrated and independent judiciary in India. The Supreme Court is the highest court of the land. Both Supreme Court and high courts have been given extensive powers to interpret the constitution and law under various provisions of the constitution of India.

Secular state

• The Indian constitution stands for a secular state i.e. all religions in our country have the same right and support from the state, it does not uphold any particular religion as the official religion of the Indian state.

Emergency provisions

• Indian constitution has special provisions to meet any extraordinary situation or

• • • • •

Different Sources of the Indian Constitution Government of India Act, 1935: This Act formed the basis or ‘blueprint’ of the Constitution of India with the features of Federal system, office of Governor, emergency power, etc. Constitution of Britain: Law-making procedures, Rule of law, Single citizenship, Bi-cameral Parliamentary system, office of CAG. Constitution of USA: Independence of judicial review, fundamental rights, removal of Supreme Court and High Court judges, Preamble and functions of President and Vice-President. Constitution of Canada: Federation with strong Centre, to provide residuary powers to the Centre, Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction. Constitution of Ireland: Directive Principles of State policy, method of presidential elections, and the nomination of members to Rajya Sabha by the President. Weimar Constitution of Germany: Provisions concerning the suspension of fundamental rights during emergency. Australian Constitution: Concurrent List, Provision Regarding Trade, Commerce and industry, Languages of the Preamble. South African Constitution: Procedure of Constitutional Amendment. Constitution of France: Republican of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Constitution of Australia: Idea of the Concurrent List. Constitution of South Africa: Amendment with 2/3rd majority in Parliament. Onstitution of former USSR: Fundamental Duties.

Indian Polity and Constitution

Important Articles of the Constitution

Part I.

Articles Subject Arts. 1-4 The Union and its territory.

Part II.

Arts. 5-11 Citizenship

Part III. Fundamental Rights

Art. 12 Definition. Art. 13 Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the funda­ mental rights, Right to Equality. Art. 14 Equality before law. Art. 15 Prohibition of discrimination on grounds on religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. Art. 16 Equality of opportunity in matters of public employ­ ment. Art. 17 Abolition of untouchability. Art. 18 Abolition of titles, Right to Freedom. Art. 19 Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc. Art. 20 Protection in respect of con­ viction of offences. Art. 21 Protection of life and personal liberty. Art. 21A. Right to Education. Art. 22 Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.

Right Against Exploitation

Art. 23 Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour. Art. 24 Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc. Art. 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion. Art. 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs. Art. 27 Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.

227

Art. 28 Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.

Cultural and Educational Rights

Art. 29 Protection of interests of minorities. Art. 30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions. Saving of Certain Laws Art. 31A Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc. Art. 31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations. Art. 31C Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.

Right to Constitutional Remedies

Art. 32 Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part. Art. 33 Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc. Art. 34 Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area. Art. 35 Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.

Part IV. Directive Principles of State Policy

Art. 36 Definition. Art. 37 Application of the principles contained in this Part. Art. 38 State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people. Art. 39 Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State. Art. 39A Equal justice and free legal aid. Art. 40 Organisation of village panchayats. Art. 41 Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.

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General Knowledge  2020

Art. 42 Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief. Art. 43 Living wage, etc. for workers. Art. 43A Participation of workers in management of industries. Art. 43B The State shall endeavour to promote voluntary formation, autonomous functioning, democratic control and professional management of co-operative societies. Art. 44 Uniform civil code for the citizens. Art. 45 Provision for early childhood care and education to children below the age of six years. Art. 46 Promotion of educational and economic interest of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. Art. 47 Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health. Art. 48 Organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry. Art. 48A Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and Wildlife. Art. 49 Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance. Art. 50 Separation of judiciary from executive. Art. 51 Promotion. of international peace and security. Part IVA A r t . 5 1 A F u n d a m e n t a l Duties.

Part V. The Union The Executive Art. 52 The President of India. Art. 53 Executive power of the Union. Art. 54 Election of President.

Art. 61 Procedure for impeachment of the President. Art. 63 The Vice-President of India. Art. 64 The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Council or States. Art. 65 The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his function during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence of President. Art. 66 Election of Vice-President. Art. 72 Power of President to grant pardons, etc. and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases. Art. 74 Council of Ministers to aid and advise President. Art. 76 Attorney-General for India.

Parliament Art. 79 Constitution of Parliament. Art. 80 Composition of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha). Art. 81 Composition of the House of the People (Lok Sabha). Art. 83 Duration of Houses of Parliament. Art. 84 Qualification for membership of Parliament. Art. 85 Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution. Art. 86 Right of President to address and send messages to Houses. Art. 87 Special address by the President. Art. 88 Rights of Ministers and Attorney General as respect to Houses. Art. 89 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States. Art. 93 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People. Art. 98 Secretariat of Parliament. Art. 99 Oath of affirmation by members.

Indian Polity and Constitution

Art. 105 Powers, privileges, etc. of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof. Art. 108 Joint sitting of both House in certain cases. Art. 109 Special procedure in respect of Money Bills. Art. 110 Definition of “Money Bills.” Art. 111 Assent of Bills. Art. 112 Annual financial statement (Budget). Art. 114 Appropriation Bills. Art. 115 Supplementary, additional or excess grants. Art. 116 Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants. Art. 117 Special provisions as to financial Bills. Art. 119 Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business. Art. 120 Language to be used in Parliament. Art. 122 Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.

Legislative Powers of the President Art. 123 Power of President to prom­ ulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament. The Union Judiciary Art. 124 Establishment and Con­ stitution of Supreme Court. Art. 126 Appointment of acting Chief Justice. Art. 127 Appointment of ad hoc Judges. Art. 128 Attendance of retired Judge at sittings of the Supreme Court. Art. 129 Supreme Court to be a Court of record. Art. 131 Original jurisdiction of Supreme Court. Art. 132 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Court in certain cases.

229

Art. 133 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Court in regard to civil matters. Art. 134 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters. Art. 136 Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court. Art. 137 Review of judgements or orders by the Supreme Court. Art. 141 Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts. Art. 143 Power of President to consult Supreme Court. Art. 144 Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court.

Comptroller and Auditor-General of India Art. 148 Comptroller and AuditorGeneral of India. Art. 149 Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor -General.

Part VI: The States Arts. 152-237 The Government at the State level: The Executive, The State Legislature, The High Courts and Subordinate Courts.

Part VIII:

Articles 239-242: The Union Territories

Part IX:

Arts. 243 to 243-O  The Panchayats.

Part IX A:

Arts. 243-P to 243-ZG The Municipalities.

Part IX B:

Arts. 243-ZH to 243-ZT The Co-operative Societies.

Part X:

Arts. 244-244A The Scheduled and Tribal Areas.

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General Knowledge  2020

Part XI:

Arts. 245-263 Relations between The Union and the States.

Part XII:

Arts. 264-300 Finance, property, contracts and suits.

Article 300A: Right to Property

Part XIII Arts. 301-307 T r a d e , C o m m e r c e a n d Industry within India. Part XIV Services under the Union and the States. Art. 309 Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State. Art. 311 Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a State. Art. 312 All-India Services. Art. 315 Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States. Art. 320 Functions of Public Service Commissions.

Part XIVA Articles 323A-323B: Tribunals

Part XV Elections Art. 324 Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission. Art. 325 No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex. Art. 326 Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage. Art. 329 Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

Part XVI

Arts. 330-342 Special provisions for certain classes.

Part XVII

Arts. 343-351 Official languages.

Part XVIII

Arts. 352-360 Emergency Provisions. Part XIX Miscellaneous. Art. 363 Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties, agreements, etc. Art. 365 Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union.

Part XX

Art. 368 Amendment of the Constitution.

Part XXI

Arts. 369-392 Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions Special status of States.

Part XXII

Arts. 393-395 Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative text in Hindi and Repeals.

Schedules of the Indian Constitution 1st Schedule: 29 States and 7 Union Territories with Territorial demarcations. 2nd Schedule: Part ‘A’ Salary and emoluments of the President and Governors of States. Part ‘B’ Omitted. Part ‘C’ Salary and emoluments of the Speaker/Deputy Speaker or Chairman/ Vice-Chairman of the Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies or Councils. Part ‘D’ Salary and emoluments of the judge of the Supreme Court and High Courts. Part ‘E’ Salary and emoluments of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India. 3rd Schedule: Forms of oath and affirmations of members of legislatures, ministers and judges. 4th Schedule: Allocation of seats to States and Union Territories in the Rajya Sabha. 5th Schedule: Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and STs.

Indian Polity and Constitution

6th Schedule: Administration of Tribal Areas of North-Eastern States. 7th Schedule: Distribution of power between the Union and the State Government. (Union List, State List and Concurrent List). 8th Schedule: Description of 22 languages recognised by the constitution. 9th Schedule: Validation of certain Acts and Regulations. 10th Schedule: Provisions as to disqualification on ground of defection (Anti-defection Law introduced by the 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act). 11th Schedule: Power, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats, 29 subjects over which the Panchayats have jurisdiction (refer to the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act). 12th Schedule: Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, 18 subjects over which the Municipalities have jurisdiction (refer to the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act).

Important Cases of the Constitution Golaknath Case, 1967

Preamble was not a part of the constitution. Supreme court held that the Parliament had no power to amend any of the provisions of Part III (Fundamental rights). The Indira Gandhi government in 1971 carried out the 24th Amendment with a view to assert the right of the Parliament to amend any part of the constitution.

Keshvanada Bharti Case, 1973

Preamble was a part of the constitution and can be amended by the Parliament under Article 368. Parliament can also amend the fundamental rights (Against Golaknath case) but ruled that the Parliament cannot destroy the basic structure of the constitution.

Minerva Mills Case, 1980

The 42nd amendment carried out in 1976 asserted that the Parliament had unlimited

231

powers to amend the constitution and tried to accord precedence to directive principles over fundamental rights. But in the Minerva Mills Case, the Supreme Court struck down those provisions.

Maneka Gandhi vs. Union of India

Right to live is not merely confined to physical existence but includes within its ambit the right to live with human dignity.

Some Special Features of the Indian Constitution • The Constitution of India is the lengthiest and the most comprehensive of all the written constitutions of the world. • The Constitution contains detailed provisions relating to Centre-State relations including the emergency provisions. • Special status has been given to Jammu and Kashmir and some other states such as Nagaland, Mizoram, Assam, Gujarat, etc. • Under the Constitution the people of India are the ultimate sovereign. • The Constitution of India establishes a Parliamentary form of government both at the Centre and in the States. • The Constitution declares certain Funda­ mental rights of the individual. • It is unique feature of the Indian Constitution that it makes the citizens’ duties a part of the basic law of the land. • The Indian Constitution unlike other federal constitutions provides for a single unified judiciary with the Supreme Court at the apex, the High Courts in the middle and the Subordinate Court at the bottom. • There are provisions in the Constitution to ensure independence of judiciary. • The most remarkable feature of the Indian Constitution is that being a federal Constitution, it acquires a unitary character during the time of emergency. • Under the Indian Constitution every adult above 18 years of age has been given right to elect representatives for the legislature without prescribing any qualification based either on sex, property, education or the like.

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• Indian Constitution provides for the esta­ blishment of Secular State. • The State cannot discriminate against anyone on the ground of religion or caste, nor can it compel anybody to pay taxes for the support of any particular religion. • The Indian Constitution has special reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Tribes in public appointments and in educational institutions and in the Union and State Legislatures. • An outstanding feature of the Constitution is Panchayati Raj. • The procedure of amendment of the Indian Constitution is partly flexible and partly rigid. • Single citizenship has been adopted in our Constitution.

Federal and Unitary Features of the Indian Union • India is different from the United States of America because in United States the federation is based on an agreement between different States, and the States have the right to secede from the Union.

Federal Features

• Distribution of powers between Union and the States has been made as per the three lists. • The Union Government as well as the State Governments has to function strictly in accordance with the Constitution. • Indian Constitution is entirely written. An amendment to it must be passed by the Parliament and if an amendment affects the federal structure it must be ratified by at least half the State Legislatures. • Has an independent judiciary as an essential feature.

Unitary Features of Indian Constitution

• The Indian Constitution provides every Indian with single citizenship. • The centre can legislate on the subjects in the Concurrent List. • Residuary powers belong to the Centre.

• Single Constitutional Framework has been provided for the Centre as well as for the State. • The proclamation of National emergency can immediately turn the federal system of India into a unitary one. • In the Rajya Sabha in India, States are represented on the basis of population. Besides, the President has the power to nominate twelve members to the Rajya Sabha. • The Governors of the States are appointed by the President and they continue to hold office only during his pleasure. • The Indian Constitution provides for single judiciary. • The authority of the Comptroller and Auditor General and the Chief Election Commissioner uniformly prevails over the Union as well as States.

Lapse of Paramountcy • When the Indian Independence Act, 1947 was passed, it declared the lapse of suzerainty (paramountcy) of the crown, in Sec. 7 (i) (b) of the Act. • Of the states situated within the geographical boundaries of the Dominion of India, all (numbering 552) save Hyderabad, Kashmir, Bahawalpur, Junagarh and the N.W.F. (North West Frontier) states (Chitral, Phulara, Dir, Swat and Amb) had acceded to the dominion of India by the 15th August, 1947, i.e. before the ‘appointed day’ itself.

Integration and Merger of Indian States • The main objective of shaping the Indian States into sizeable or viable administrative units was sought to be achieved by a threefold process of integration (known as the ‘Patel Scheme’ after Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Minister-in-charge of Home Affairs): 1. 216 states were merged into respective Provinces, geographically contiguous (connected) to them. 2. These merged states were included in the territories of the States in Part B in the First Schedule of the Constitution.

Indian Polity and Constitution

3. 61 states were converted into centrally administered areas and included in Part C of the First Schedule of the Constitution. 4. The third form of integration was the consolidation of groups of states into new viable units, known as Union of States. • The process of integration culminated in the Constitution (7th Amendment) Act, 1956, which abolished Part B states as a class and included all the states in Part A and B in one list.

Evolution of States and Union Territories Dhar Committee

• The Constituent Assembly appointed the S.K. Dhar Commission in 1947 to study the issue of the reorganisation of the states on linguistic basis. The Dhar Commission categorically rejected the basis of linguistic formation of states.

J.V.P. Committee

• The Congress in its Jaipur session in 1948, appointed a three member committee to consider the recommendation of Dhar commission. Its members were Jawahar Lal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya. • The committee rejected language as the basis for the reorganisation despite popular support for it.

Fazal Ali Commission

• After the creation of Andhra State, demand for creation of states on linguistic basic intensified and Fazal Ali Commission was constituted in December 1953, which was also known as States Reorganisation Commission. • By the States Reorganisation Act (1956) and the 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, the distinction between states was abolished. Some of them were merged with the adjacent states and some others were designated as Union Territories. As a result 14 States and 6 Union Territories were created on November 1, 1956.

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• In October 1953, the Government of India was forced to create the First Linguistic State, known as Andhra Pradesh, by separating the Telugu speaking area from Madras state. (after the death of Sriramulu, a Congress person).

The Preamble • The ideals embodied in the Objectives Resolution are faithfully reflected in the Preamble to the Constitution, which, as amended in 1976, summaries the aims and objects of the Constitution. • Text of the Preamble: “We, the People of India having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic and to secure to all citizens Justice, social, economic and political; Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship, Equality of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all Fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation in our Constituent Assembly on this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact and give to ourselves this constitution.” • N.A. Palkivala, an eminent jurist and constitutional expert, called the Preamble as the Identity. • The Preamble to the Indian Constitution is based on the Objectives Resolution drafted and moved by Pandit Nehru and adopted by the Constituent Assembly. • The Preamble is not enforceable in a court of law. • The Preamble has been amended only once so far, in 1976, by 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, which added three new words Socialist, Secular and Integrity. This amendment was held to be valid. • In case of doubt, the Supreme Court has referred to the Preamble to elucidate vague aspects of the Constitution. • In the Berubari case, the Supreme Court held that the Preamble was not part of the Constitution, but later, in the Keshavananda Bharti case, it declared that it was part of the Constitution.

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Reorganization of States • A Bill seeking to create a new State or alter boundaries of existing States can be introduced in either House of the Parliament, only on the recommendation of the President. • President refers the State Reorganization Bill to the State Legislature concerned for its opinion, fixing a time limit. • Parliament is not bound to accept or act upon the views of the State Legislature on a state Reorganization Bill. The State Reorganization Bill requires simple majority in both Houses of the Parliament. • It is not necessary to obtain the views of legislatures of Union territories before a bill affecting their boundaries or names in introduced.

Timeline of States and Union Territories • In 1956 there were 14 States and 6 Union Territories. Andhra Pradesh was created in 1953 and Kerala in 1956. • In 1956, Karnataka was created. • In 1960, Bombay was bifurcated into Gujarat and Maharashtra. • In 1962, Nagaland was created as separate state. • In 1966, Haryana was carved out of Punjab and Chandigarh became a Union Territory. • In 1970, the Union Territory of Himachal Pradesh was elevated to the status of state. • In 1971, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya were granted statehood. • In 1974, Sikkim became an associate state of the Indian Union. By the 36th Constitutional Amendment Act (1975), Sikkim became a full fledged State of the India Union. • In 1986, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh came into being. • In 1987, Goa came into existence. • In 2000, three more new states Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and Jharkhand were created. • On 2 June 2014, Telangana was made a new 29th state after separating from Andhra Pradesh, with the city of Hyderabad as its capital.

The Union and its Territories

• Article 1 describes India, i.e. Bharat, as a Union of States. • According to Article 1, the Territory of India can be classified into the three categories: 1. Territories of the States. 2. Union Territories. 3. Territories that may be acquired by the Government of India at any time. • At present, there are 29 States and 7 Union Territories. • Article 2 empowers the Parliament to admit into the Union of India, or establish new states on such terms and conditions as it thinks fit. • Article 3 authorises the Parliament to: (a) Form a new state by separation from any state or by uniting two or more states or parts of states or by uniting any territory to a part of any state; (b) Increase the area of any state; (c) Diminish the area of any state; (d) Alter the boundaries of any state; (e) Alter the name of any state.

Citizenship • Citizenship of India was granted to every person who domiciled in the territory of India at the commencement of the Constitution and who was born in the territory of India or– ƒƒ Either of whose parents was born in the territory of India or ƒƒ Who had been ordinarily residing in the territory of India for not less than five years immediately preceding commencement of the Constitution? • Indian citizens have the following rights under the Constitution which aliens do not possess: ƒƒ Some of the Fundamental Rights enumerated in Part III of the Constitution, e.g., Articles 15, 16, 19, 29 and 30. ƒƒ Only citizens are eligible for offices of the President, Vice-President, Judge of the Supreme Court or a High Court, Attorney General, Governor of a State, Member of a legislature, etc. ƒƒ Only citizens have the right to vote.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• The Citizenship Act, 1955, provides for the acquisition of Indian citizenship in the following ways: ƒƒ Generally, every person born in India on or after January 1950 shall be a citizen of India or either of his parents was a citizen of India at the time of his birth. ƒƒ A person who was outside India on or after 26 January; 1950, shall be a citizen of India by descent, if his father was a citizen of India at the time of that person’s birth. ƒƒ A person residing in India for more than seven years can seek citizenship by naturalisation. ƒƒ If any new territory becomes a part of India, the persons of the territory become citizens of Indian. • Citizenship of India may be lost by: ƒƒ Renunciation of citizenship. ƒƒ Termination of citizenship, if a citizen of India voluntarily acquires the citizenship of another country. ƒƒ Deprivation of citizenship by the Government of India.

Overseas Citizens of India (OCI)

• Citizenship Act has been amended in 2003, by which people of Indian origin, except in Pakistan and Bangladesh, will become eligible to be registered as the Overseas Citizens of India (OCI).

or any of them be subjected to any disability, liability restriction or condition with regarded to access to shops, public restaurants, hotels and places of public entertainment or the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats, roads and places of public resort maintained wholly or partly out of State funds or dedicated to the use of general public. ƒƒ Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any special provisions for women, children or any socially and educationally backward classes. • Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on certain grounds. It says that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. • Article 16 guarantees equality of opp­ ortunity in matters of public employment. It says that: ƒƒ There shall be equality of opportunity for all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment to any office under the State. ƒƒ No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth or any of them, be ineligible for any employment under the State.

The Mandal Commission Case

Fundamental Rights • The Fundamental Rights have been des­cribed in Articles 12-35, Part III of Indian Constitution. • The Right to Property (Article 31) was deleted from the list of Fundamental Act, 1978. By the 44th Amendment Act, 1978, it is made a normal constitutional right under Act 300A in Part XII of the Constitution. • Article 14 of the Constitution States that: The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. ƒƒ No citizen shall, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth

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• • • •

A nine-judge Bench of the Supreme Court has laid down in Indra Sawhney’s case (popularly known as the Mandal Commission (Case) regarding reservation in government employment, that: Under Article 16 (4) provisions can be made in favour of the backward classes in the matter of employment by Executive orders also. The backwardness contemplated by Art. 16 (4) is mainly social. It need not be both social and educational. The reservations contemplated in Art. 16 (4) should not exceed 50%. Reservation of posts under Art. 16 (4) is confined to initial appointment only and cannot extend to providing reservation in promotion.

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)) Note:

Mandal Commission was set up in 1979 under the Chairmanship of B.N. Mandal, M.P. (Former Chief Minister of Bihar).

• The 77th Amendment has provided to continue reservation in promotion for the S.C. and S.T. • A r t i c l e 1 7 e n s u r e s A b o l i t i o n o f Untouchability. • Article 18 ensures Abolition of titles. It prevents the State from conferring any title. • This ban is only against the State and not against other public institutions such as universities. • The State is not debarred from awarding military or academic distinctions, even though they may be used as titles. • Bharat Ratna or Padma Vibhushan cannot be used by the recipient as a title and therefore does not come within the Constitutional prohibition.

• •

Right to Freedom Article (19–22) (a) Right to freedom of speech and exp­ ression. (b) Right to assemble peacefully and without arms. (c) Right to form association or unions or co-operatives. (d) Right to move freely throughout the territory of India. (e) Right to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India. (f) Right to practice any profession or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. • State can impose restrictions on the freedom of speech in the interest of the sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, decency or morality, or in relation to contempt of court, defamation or incitement to an offence. • Restriction can be imposed on the right to form associations in the interests of the sovereignty and integrity of India or public

• •

• •

order of morality. Restrictions can also be imposed on freedom of movement and reside and settle in the interest of the general public order or morality. Restrictions can also be imposed on freedom of movement and reside and settle in the interest of the general public or for the protection of the interests of any scheduled tribe. Freedom of the press is included in the wider freedom of expression which is guaranteed by freedom of expression under Art. 19. Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences. It grants protection against arbitrary and excessive punishment to an accused person, whether citizen or foreigner or legal person like a company of a corporation. Article 21 (A) makes the right of education for children of the age of 6 to 14 years a fundamental right. [Ref.: 86th Amendment Act, 2002]. Article 21 of Constitution provides that no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. In England courts have no power to invalidate a law made by Parliament. In Manka’s case the Supreme Court held that a law made by the State which seeks to deprive a person of his personal liberty must prescribe a procedure for such deprivation which must not be arbitrary, unfair or unreasonable. It follows that such a law shall be invalid if it violates the principle of natural justice. Article 22 provides that no person who is arrested shall be detained in custody without being informed of the ground for such arrest. Every person who is arrested and detained in custody is to be produced before the nearest magistrate within a period of twenty-four hours of arrest excluding the time necessary for the journey from the place of arrest to the court of the magistrate and no such person can be detained in custody beyond that period without the authority of a magistrate. The Constitution authorises the Legislature to make laws for preventive detention.

Indian Polity and Constitution

Right Against Exploitation Article 23–24)

• Article 23 provides Right against Exp­ loitation in following respects: • Traffic in human beings and beggar and other similar forms of forced labour are prohibited. • Special provision for the protection of children is made in Art. 24 which provides that no child below the age of fourteen years can be employed to work in any factory or mine or engaged in any other hazardous employment.

Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25–28)

• Article 25 provides freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion subject to public order, morality and health. • Article 26 guarantees following rights to all religious groups subject to public order, morality and health: ƒƒ Establish and maintain institution for religious and charitable purposes; ƒƒ Manage its own affairs in matters of religion; ƒƒ Own and acquire movable and imm­ ovable property; ƒƒ Administer such property in accordance with law. • The State cannot compel any citizen to pay any taxes for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious institution [Ref.: Art. 27]. • No religious instruction can be provided in any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds [Ref.: Art. 28].

Cultural and Educational Rights (Article 29–30)

• Where a religious community is in the minority, the Constitution enables it to preserve its culture and religious interests by providing that the State shall not impose upon it any culture other than the community’s own culture [Ref.: Art. 29 (1)]. • Such community shall have the right to establish and administer educational institutions of its choice and the State shall not, in granting aid to educational

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institution, discriminate against such an educational institution maintained by a minority community on the ground that it is under the management of a religious community [Ref.: Art. 30]. • Full compensation has to be paid if the State seeks to acquire the property of a minority educational institution [Ref.: Art. 30 (1A)].

Right to constitutional Remedies (Article–32)

• Right to constitutional remedy, which was termed “Soul of the Constitution” by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, has been guaranteed by Art. 32 of the Constitution.

The Writs • The power to issue these writs for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights is given by the Constitution to the Supreme Court [Ref.: Art. 32] and High Court [Ref.: Art. 226]. • Supreme Court has the power to issue writs only for the purpose of enforcement of the Fundamental Rights whereas under Art. 226 a High Court can issue writs for the purpose of enforcement of Fundamental Rights and/or for the redress of any other injury of illegality. • A writ of Habeas Corpus calls upon the person who has detained another to produce the latter before the court. The words ‘habeas corpus’ literally mean ‘to have a body’. • Mandamus literally means a command. It commands the person to whom it is addressed to perform some public or quasi-public legal duty which he has refused to perform and the performance of which cannot be enforced by any other adequate legal remedy. • The write of prohibition is a writ issued by the Supreme Court or a High Court to an inferior court forbidding the latter to continue proceeding therein in excess if its jurisdiction or to usurp a jurisdiction with which it is not legally vested. • Though prohibition and certiorari are both issued against court or Tribunals exercising judicial or quasi-judicial powers, Certiorari

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is issued to quash order or decision of the court or Tribunal while prohibition is issued to prohibit the court or Tribunal from making the ultra vires order or decision. • Quo warranto is a proceeding whereby the court enquires into the legality of the claim which a party asserts to a public office. • Parliament has the power to modify the application of the Fundamental Rights of the members of the armed forces, police forces or intelligence organizations and maintenance of discipline amongst them [Ref.: Art. 33]. • When martial law is in force, Parliament may indemnify any person in the service of the Union or a State for any act done by him [Ref.: Art. 34].

Right to Information

• Right to information has been granted to every citizen of India under Right to information Act, 2005 which came into force on 12 October 2005. • It is not Fundamental Right.

Limitations on the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights

• Parliament has the power to modify the application of the Fundamental Rights to the members of the Armed Forces, Police Force or intelligence organisations so as to ensure proper discharge of their duties and maintenance of discipline among them (Article 33). • Article 34: Restriction on rights conferred by this part while martial law is in force in any area. • Article 35: Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this part.

Directive Principles of State Policy

• The Directive Principles of State Policy are enumerated in Part IV of the Constitution from Articles 36 to 51. • They embody the concept of a welfare state. • These are fundamental in the governance of the country. • They are non-justifiable. • They apply to both Union and State Governments and all other authorities coming under the definition of ‘State’.

Socialistic Principles

These principles reflect the ideology of socialism. • Article 38: To promote the welfare of the people by securing a social order permeated by justice–social, economic and political and to minimise inequalities in income, status facilities and opportunities. • Article 39: To secure (a) the right to adequate means of livelihood for all citizens; (b) the equitable distribution of material resources of the community for the common good; (c) prevention of concentration of wealth and means of production; (d) equal pay for equal work for men for men and women; (e) preservation of the health and strength of workers and children against forcible abuse; and (f) opportunities for healthy development of children. • Article 41: To secure the right to work, education and public assistance in cases of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement. • Article 42: To make provision for just and humane conditions for work and maternity relief.

Gandhian Principles

These principles are based on Gandhian ideology. • Article 40: To organise village Panchayat of function as units of self-government. • Article 43: To promote cottage industries on an individual or co-operation basis in rural areas. • Article 46: To promote the educational and economic interests of SCs, STs and other weaker sections of the society and to protect them from social injustice and exploitation. • Article 47: To prohibit the consumption of intoxicating drinks and drugs which are injurious to health. • Article 48: To organise agriculture and animal husbandry on modern and scientific lines.

Liberal-Intellectual Principles

The principles included in this category represent the ideology of liberalism. • Article 44: To secure for all citizens a uniform civil code throughout the country. • Article 45: To provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• Article 49: To protect all monuments of historic interest and national importance. • Article 50: To separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services of the state. • Article 51: To promote international peace and security and to maintain just and honourable relations between nations; to foster respect for international law and treaty obligations, and to encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration. New Directive Principles • Article 39A: To provide free legal aid to the poor (42nd Amendment Act, 1976). • Article 39F: To secure opportunities for healthy development of children (42nd Amendment Act, 1976). • Article 43A: To take steps to secure the participation of workers in the management of industries (42nd Amendment Act, 1976). • Article 43B: T o promote professionally run co-operative societies added by the 97th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011. • Article 48A: To protect and improve the environment and to safeguard forests and wildlife (42nd Amendment Act, 1976).

• Article 38 (2) added one more Directive Principle, which requires the state to minimise inequalities in income status facilities and opportunities under Article 38. (44th Amendment Act)

Difference Between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles

• The Directives are not enforceable in the courts and do not create any Justifiable rights in favour of the individuals, while the Fundamental Rights are enforceable by the courts [Ref.: Arts. 32, 37, and 226 (1)]. • In case of any conflict between fundamental rights and directive principles, the former should prevail in the courts. • State and every local authority within the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother-tongue at the

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primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups [Ref.: Art. 350A]. • Union to promote spread of Hindi language and to develop it as a medium of expression of all the elements of the composite culture of India [Ref.: Art. 251]. • The claims of the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistently with the maintenance of efficiency of administration, in the making of app0ointments to services and posts in connection with the affairs of the union of a state [Ref.: Art. 335].

Fundamental Duties • In 1976, the FDs of citizens were added by 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act on the basis of Swaran Singh Committee Report.

List of Fundamental Duties

• • • •

• • •

• •

According to Article 51A, of Part IV A, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India: to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; to cherish and follow the noble ideals that inspired the national struggle for freedom; to uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities and to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women; to defend the country and render national service, when called upon to do so; to value and preserve the rich heritage of the country’s composite culture; to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures; to develop scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform; to safeguard public property and to abjure violence;

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• to strive for excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity. • to provide opportunities for education to his child or as the case may be ward between the age of six and fourteen years. • to strive toward excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement; and • to provide opportunities for education to his child or ward between the age of 6 to 14 years. This duty was added by the 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002.

Procedure for Amending The Constitution • Provisions of the Constitution can be changed only by the process of ‘amendment’ prescribed in Art. 368. • In the case of provisions which affect the federal structure, ratification by the Legislatures of at least half of the states, is required before the Bill is presented to the President for his assent. • An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill for the purpose in either House of Parliament. • The Amendment Bill should be passed by each House by a special majority, e.g., more than 50% of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of that House present and voting. • Constitution stands amended in accordance with the terms of the Amendment Bill after President’s assent is accorded to it.

The blend of rigidity and flexibility in the procedure for amendment

• The State Legislatures cannot initiate any Bill or proposal for amendment of the Constitution. • Subject to the provisions of Art. 368, Constitution Amendment Bills are to be passed by the Parliament in the same way as Ordinary Bills. • The procedure for joint session is not applicable to Bills for amendment of the Constitution.

• The previous sanction of the President is not required for introducing any Bill for amendment of the Constitution. • The amendment of Art. 368 in 1971 has made it obligatory for the President to give his assent to a Bill for amendment of the Constitution, when it is presented to him after its passage by the Legislature [Ref.: 24th Amendment 1971].

Whether Fundamental Rights are Amendable

• In the case of Keshvananda Bharati, the Supreme Court overruled its own decision given in the case of Golak Nath and held that the Parliament could amend any provision of the Constitution including fundamental rights in accordance with.

The Doctrine of Basic Features

• The Supreme Court held in the case of Keshavananda Bharati that there are certain basic features of the Constitution of India, which cannot be altered by an amendment under Art. 368. • The 42nd Amendment Act “shall be called in Question in any court on any ground”. These clauses were nullified by the Supreme Court in the Minerva Mill’s case. • There are three implications of the decision in Keshavananda Bharati’s case. 1. Any part of the Constitution may be amended as per the procedure laid down in Art. 368. 2. No referendum or reference to Con­ stituent Assembly is required to amend any provision of the Constitution. 3. Basic features of the Constitution cannot be amended.

Executive of the Union The President

• President is the head of the Union Executive. • The President of India is indirectly elected by an electoral college, in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• The Electoral College for the president consists of: ƒƒ The elected members of both Houses of Parliament; ƒƒ The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the states; and ƒƒ The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry (now Puducherry).

Qualification of the President

• • • •

Under Article 58, a person to be eligible for election as President should fulfill the following qualifications: He should be a citizen of India. He should have completed 35 years of age. He should be qualified for election as a member of the Lok Sabha. He should not hold any office of profit under the Union Government or any State Government or any local authority or any other public authority.

Election of the President (Article 54)

• The President is elected by members of Electoral College consisting of the elected members of both the Houses of Parliament; • The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the states; and • The elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the Union Territories of Delhi and Puducherry. • All disputes regarding election of the President are adjudicated by the Supreme Court. • Nomination for election of President must be supported by at least 50 electors as proposers and 50 electors as seconders. • Security deposit for the nomination as President is ` 15000 in RBI.

Value of the vote of an M. L. A. Total population of state 1 × = Total number of elected M.L.As. 1000 Value of the vote of an M.P. Total value of votes of all M.L. As of all states = Total number of elected M.Ps.

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The presidential election is held in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote and the voting is through secret ballot.

Conditions of President’s Office

Article 59 of the Constitution lays down the following condition of the President’s office: • He should not be a member of either House of Parliament or a House of the State Legislature. If any such person is elected as President he is deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date on which he enters upon his office as the President. • His emoluments and allowances cannot be diminished during his term of office. • Article 60: Oath and Affirmation of the President. • The oath of the President is administered by the Chief Justice of India and in his absence, the seniormost Judge of the Supreme Court.

Term of office of the President

• Under Article 56, the President shall hold office for a term of five year from the date on which he enters upon his office. • He may resign from his office by writing under his hand addressed to the VicePresident (he can communicate to the Speaker of the Lok Sabha).

Impeachment of the President

Under Article 61, President can be impeached from office for “violation of the Constitution”. • The impeachment can be initiated by either House of the Parliament. The resolution must be moved after at least 1/4 days notice in writing signed by not less than 14th of total members of the House and passed by two thirds of the total membership.

Vacancy in the President’s Office

• • • •

Under Article 62, a vacancy in the President’ office can occur in any of the following ways: On the expiry of his tenure of five years. By his resignation. On his removal by the process of impeachment. By his death.

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General Knowledge  2020

• An election to fill the vacancy (due to expiration of term) must be held before the expiry of the term. • If the office fall vacant by resignation, removal, death or otherwise, then election to fill the vacancy should be completed within six months from the date of the occurrence of such a vacancy. • The President shall not be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State. • If a member of either House of Parliament or a House of the Legislature of any State is elected President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in that House. • The outgoing President continues to hold office, notwithstanding that his term has expired, until his successor enters upon the office. There is no scope for the VicePresident getting a chance to act as President in this case. Smart Facts about ‘President’ V.V. Giri is the only person, who won the Election of the President as an independent candidate in 1969. In July 1977, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy was elected unopposed as no one else filed nomination for the post of the President. Justice M. Hidayatullah is the only person to perform the function of the President two times in two different capacities, the first time in 1969, being the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and the second time being the Vice-President of India in 1982.

ƒƒ The Attorney-General for India ƒƒ The Comptroller and Auditor General of India* ƒƒ The Judges of the Supreme Court* ƒƒ The Judges of the High Courts of the states* ƒƒ The Governors of states* ƒƒ Chief election commissioner and other members of Election Commission. ƒƒ Chairman and members of UPSC.

)) *Can

be removed from office through special constitutional provisions (by impeachment).

Financial Powers

• Money Bills can be introduced in the Parlia­ ment only with his prior recommendation. • No demand for a grant can be made except on his recommendation. • He through his representative presents the annual financial statement before the parliament. • H e c a n m a k e a d v a n c e o u t o f t h e Contingency Fund of the India to meet any unforeseen expenditure. • He constitutes a Finance Commission after every five years.

Judicial Powers

• He appoints the Chief Justice and the Judges of Supreme Court and High Courts. • He can seek advice from the Supreme Court on any question of law of fact. However, the advice tendered by the Supreme Court is not binding on the President (Article 143).

Military Powers

Powers of President Administrative Power

• The President is the formal head of the administration. All executive actions of the Union are expressed to be taken in the name of the President. • The President shall have the power to appoint and remove high dignitaries including: ƒƒ The Prime Minister of India ƒƒ Other Ministers of the Union

• The Supreme command of the Defense Forces is vested in the President of India, but the Parliament can regulate or control the exercise of such power. • Declares war or conduces peace, subject to the approval of the Parliament.

Diplomatic Powers

• President of India represents India in international affairs, appoints Indian repre­ sentatives to other countries and receives diplomatic representatives of other States.

Indian Polity and Constitution

Legislative Powers

• President has the power to summon or prorogue the Houses of Parliament and to dissolve the Lok Sabha. • He also has the power to summon a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament in case of a deadlock between them. • The President addresses both Houses of Parliament assembled together, at the first session after each general election to the Lok Sabha and at the commencement of the first session of each year. • In the Rajya Sabha, 12 members are nominated by the President from persons having special knowledge or practical experience of literature, science, art and social service. • The President is empowered to nominate not more than two Anglo-Indian members to the Lok Sabha, if that community is not adequately represented in that House. • A Bill becomes an Act of the Indian Parliament only after it receives the assent of the President. • When a Bill is presented to the President for assent: ƒƒ He may declare his assent to the Bill; or ƒƒ He may withhold his assent to the Bill; or ƒƒ He may, in the case of Bills other than Money Bills return the Bill for recon­ sideration of the Houses, with or without a message suggesting amendments. If the Bill is passed again by both Houses of Parliament with or without amendment and again presented to the President. It would be obligatory upon him to declare his assent to it. • The veto power of the Indian President is a combination of the absolute, suspense and pocket vetors. • President of India has the power of disallowance or return for reconsideration of a Bill of the state legislature, which are reserved for his consideration by the Governor of the State. A Money Bill so reserved, cannot be returned by the President. • He can promulgate ordinances, when the Parliament is not in session. The ordinances must be approved by the Parliament within six weeks from its reassembly. He

243

can also withdraw an ordinance at any time (Article 123). • He lays the reports of CAG, UPSC, Finance Commission etc., before the Parliament. Presidents of India S.No.

Name

Period

1.

Rajendra Prasad

2.

Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan Zakir Hussain

26 Jan. 1950 to 13 May 1962 13 May 1962 to 13 May 1967 13 May 1967 to 3 May 1969 3 May 1969 to 20 July 1969 20 July 1969 to 24 Aug. 1969 24 Aug. 1969 to 24 Aug. 1974 24 Aug. 1974 to 11 Feb. 1977 11 Feb. 1977 to 25 July 1977 25 July 1977 to 25 July 1982 25 July 1982 to 25 July 1987 25 July 1987 to 25 July 1992 25 July 1992 to 25 July 1997 25 July 1997 to 25 July 2002 25 July 2002 to 25 July 2007 25 July 2007 to 25 July 2012 25 July 2012 to 25 July 2017 25 July 2017 to till date

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Varahagiri Venkata Giri Muhammad Hidayatullah Varahagiri Venkata Giri Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed Basappa Danappa Jatti Neelam Sanjiva Reddy Giani Zail Singh

14.

Ramaswamy Venkataraman Shankar Dayal Sharma Kocheril Raman Narayanan A.P.J. Abdul Kalam

15.

Pratibha Patil

16.

Pranab Mukherjee

17.

Ramnath Kobind

12. 13.

• • • • •

Pardoning Powers of the President (Article 72) Pardon Reprieve Remission Respite Commutation

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General Knowledge  2020

Comparison between Pardoning Powers of the President and a Governor

• President has the power to grant pardon, reprieve, respite, suspension, remission or commutation, in respect of punishment or sentence by court-martial. Governor has no such power. • Governor has no power to pardon in case of sentence of death, only President can pardon a death sentence.

Emergency Powers

• The President of India can proclaim emergency in three conditions after getting the written recommendation of the Cabinet. • National Emergency (Article 352) arising out of war, external aggression or armed rebellion within the country. • Constitutional Emergency (Article 356) arising out of the failure of the constitutional machinery in the States. It is also known as President’s Rule. • Financial Emergency (Article 360) arising out of a threat to financial stability or credit of India.

Miscellaneous Powers

• Hershel has the power to give instruction to a Governor to promulgate an Ordinance if a Bill containing the same provisions requires previous sanction of the President. • President has the power to refer any question of public importance for the opinion of the Supreme Court. • President has some special powers relating to Union Territories or territories which are directly administered by the Union. • The President shall have certain special powers in respect of the administration of Scheduled Area and Tribes, and Tribal Area in Assam.

Types of Veto

1. Absolute Veto: Withholding of assent to the bill passed by the legislature. 2. Qualified Veto: Sending back of bill, which can be overridden by the legislature with a higher majority. 3. Suspensive Veto: Sending back of

a bill which can be over sided by the legislature with ordinary majority. 4. Pocket Veto: Taking no action on the bill passed by the legislature. It was used in 1986 in postal bill by the president of that time Giani Zail Singh.

The Vice-President

• Vice-President is indirectly elected by means of single transferable vote. • State Legislatures do not take part in the election of Vice-President. • Electoral College of Vice-President consists of elected and nominated members of both the Houses of Parliament. • All disputes regarding election of VicePresident are adjudicated by the Supreme Court. • In case a member of the Legislature is elected Vice-President, he shall be deemed to have vacated his seat in the House to which he belongs.

Qualification [Article 66 (3)]

• Should be a citizen of India. • Should have completed 35 years of age. • Should be qualified for election as Member of Rajya Sabha. • Should not hold any office of profit.

Oath

Under Article 69 the oath of office of the Vice-President is administered by the President or some person appointed in that behalf by him.

Term of Office Under Article 67

• Holds office for a term of 5 years from the date on which he enters upon his office. • Can be removed by a resolution of the Rajya Sabha passed by an absolute majority and agreed by the Lok Sabha [Article 67 (b)].

Vacancy of Office

A vacancy in the Vice-President’s office can occur in any of the following ways: • On the expiry of his tenure, by his resignation, on his removal, by his death. • He draws his salary in his capacity as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha.

Indian Polity and Constitution

Powers and Functions

• He acts as the ex-officio Chairman of Rajya Sabha. In this capacity, his powers and functions are similar to those of the Speaker of Lok Sabha. • He acts as President when a vacany occurs in the office of the President due to his resignation, removal, death or otherwise. He can act as President only for a maximum period of six months. • If the offices of both the President and the Vice-President fall vacant by reason of death, resignation, removal, etc. the Chief Justice of India or in his absence the senior most Judge of the Supreme Court acts as President. For the first time in 1969, when the President Dr. Zakir Hussain died and the Vice-President V.V. Giri resigned, the Chief Justice M. Hidayatullah acted as President. • A sitting Vice-President is eligible for re-election. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was elected as the Vice-President of India for a second term in 1957. • The normal function of the Vice-President is to act as the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha. • When the Vice-President acts as President, he gets the emoluments of the President. • Determination of doubts and disputes relating to the election of President or VicePresident is described in Article 71. Main provisions are as follows: • Such disputes are decided by the Supreme Court whose jurisdiction is exclusive and final. No such dispute can be raised if the President or the Vice-President is declared void by the Supreme Court, act done by him prior to the date of such decision of the Supreme Court is to be invalidated. Matters other than the decision of such disputes are regulated by law made by the Parliament. Election of the Vice-President S.No.

Victorious Candidate

Year and date of Election

1.

S. Radhakrishnan

12 May, 1952

2.

S. Radhakrishnan

11 May, 1957

3.

Zakir Hussain

07 May, 1962

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4.

V.V. Giri

6 May, 1967

5.

G.S. Pathak

30 Aug, 1969

6.

B.D. Jatti

27 Aug, 1974

7.

M. Hidaytullah

27 Aug, 1979

8.

R. Venkataraman

23 Aug, 1984

9.

Shankar Dayal Sharma

7 Sept, 1987

10.

K. R. Narayanan

19 Aug, 1992

11.

Krishan Kant

16 Aug, 1997

12.

Bhairon Singh Shekhawat

12 Aug, 2002

13.

Mohd. Hamid Ansari

10 Aug, 2007

14.

Mohd. Hamid Ansari

7 Aug, 2012

15.

Venkaiah Naidu

2017

The Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers Prime Minister

• Prime Minister is the head of the government while President is the head of the State of the Republic of India. Article 75 says that the Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President.

Oath, Term and Salary

• The term of the Prime Minister is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the President. However, this does not mean that the President can dismiss the Prime Minister at any time. So long as the Prime Minister enjoys the majority support in the Lok Sabha, he cannot be dismissed by the President. However, if he loses the confidence of the Lok Sabha, he must resign or the President can dismiss him.

In Relation to Council of Ministers

• He allocates and reshuffles various portfolios among the ministers. • He can ask a minister to resign or advise the President to dismiss him in case of difference in opinion.

246

General Knowledge  2020

• He can bring about the collapse of the Council of Ministers by resigning from office. Prime Ministers of India S.No. 1.

Name Jawahar Lal Nehru

2.

Gulzarilal Nanda

3. 4.

Lal Bahadur Shastri Gulzarilal Nanda

5.

Indira Gandhi

6.

Morarji Desai

7.

Charan Singh

8.

Indira Gandhi

9.

Rajiv Gandhi

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Vishwanath Pratap Singh Chandra Shekhar P.V. Narasimha Rao Atal Behari Vajpayee H.D. Deve Gowda Atal Behari Vajpayee Dr. Manmohan Singh Narendra Modi

Period 15 Aug. 1947 to 27 May 1964 27 May 1964 to 9 June 1964 09 June 1964 to 11 Jan. 1966 11 Jan. 1966 to 24 Jan. 1966 24 Jan. 1966 to 24 March 1977 24 March 1977 to 28 July 1979 28 July 1979 to 14 Jan. 1980 14 Jan. 1980 to 31 Oct. 1984 31 Oct. 1984 to 2 Dec. 1989 2 Dec.1989 to 10 Nov. 1990 10 Nov. 1990 to 21 June 1991 21 June 1991 to 16 May 1996 16 May 1996 to 1 June 1996 1 June 1996 to 21 April 1997 19 March 1998 to 22 May 2004 22 May 2004 to 26 May 2014 26 May 2014 to till date

In Relation to the President

• Under Article 78, it is the duty of the Prime Minister– • To communicate to the President, for all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the affairs of the Union and proposals for legislation. • To furnish such information relating to the administration of the affairs of the

Union and proposals for legislation as the President may call for. • If the President requires, to submit for the consideration of the Council of Ministers any matter on which a decision has been taken by a minister but which has not been considered by the council. • As the head of the Council of Ministers, the Prime Minister (PM) is the head of the Government. Also, she/he is the leader of his/her party or/and of a coalition of parties in Parliament and usually the Leader of the Popular House. • Ministers get the salaries and allowances, etc. as payable to members of Parliament. In addition they get a sumptuary allowance at a varying scale and a residence, free of rent.

Appointment of Ministers

• Ministers are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister. • The Prime Minister and other Ministers have to be member of either House of Parliament or should become members within six months of their appointment, failing, which they are removed.

Oath and Salary of Ministers

• President administers the oath to the Ministers.

Responsibility of Ministers

• Under Article 75, the CoMs is collectively responsible to Lok Sabha for all their acts.

Deputy Prime Minister

• The post of Deputy Prime Minister is not mentioned in the Constitution. • Though the Ministers are collectively responsible to the Legislature, they are individually responsible to the President. • A Minister can take part in the proceedings of both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, but he/she can vote only if he/she is member of the House. Name

Tenure

Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel

1947–1950

Morarji Desai

1967–1969

Charan Singh and Jagjiven Ram

1979–1979

Indian Polity and Constitution Name

Tenure

Y. B. Chavan

1979–1980

Devi Lal

1989–1990

Devi Lal

1990–1991

L. K. Advani

2002–2004

The Attorney General of India

• The Attorney General is the first Law Officer of the Government of India. • Under Article 76, the Attorney General for India is appointed by the President and holds office during the pleasure of the President. He must have the same qualifications as required to be a Judge of the Supreme Court. • The Attorney General for India is not a member of the Cabinet. But he has the right to speak in the Houses of Parliament or in any Committee thereof, but he has no right to vote. • He is entitled to the privileges of a Member of Parliament. In the performance of his official duties, the Attorney General has the right of audience in all Courts in the territory of India.

The Comptroller and Auditor General of India

• Though appointed by the President, under Articles 148-151, the Comptroller and Auditor General can be grounded of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. • His salary and conditions of service are laid down by Parliament and cannot be varied to his disadvantage during his term of office. • The term of office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) is 6 years from the date on which he assumes office. • CAG vacates office on attaining the age of 65 years even without completing the 6-year term. He can resign by writing under his hand, addressed to the President of India. • His salary is equal to that of a Judge of the Supreme Court. • The Salaries, etc. of the Comptroller and Auditor General and his staff and the administrative expenses of his office are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India and thus non-votable.

247

The main duties of the Comptroller and Auditor General are: • To audit and report on all expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India and of each State and each Union Territory having a Legislative Assembly as to whether such expenditure has been in accordance with the law. To audit and report on all expenditure from the Contingency. Funds and Public Accounts of the Union and of the States. To audit and report on all trading, manufacturing profit and loss accounts, etc. kept by any department of the Union or a State. • He is an officer of the parliament and is called Ears and Eyes of the Public Accounts Committee.

The Parliament of India • The Parliament of India consists of the President, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha (Article 79). • Out of seven UTs only two (Delhi and Puducherry) have representation in the Rajya Sabha.

Rajya Sabha [Article 80]

Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and not subject to dissolution. Its maximum strength is 250. The total membership of the present Rajya Sabha is 245 however one-third members retire every second year. Their seats are filled up by fresh elections and presidential nomination at the beginning of every third year. • There are no seats reserved for SCs and STs in Rajya Sabha. • Representation of People Act (1951) provided the term of office of a member of the Rajya Sabha shall be six years.

Lok Sabha [Article 81]

Its maximum strength is 550 + 2 members of its Anglo-Indian Community, which includes 530 members from States and 20 from Union Territories. Present strength of Lok Sabha is 545.

248

General Knowledge  2020

• The 84th Amendment Act 2001 extended the freeze on Lok Sabha and assembly seats till 2026 during the A.B. Vajpayee government. • The representatives of the States are directly elected by the people of the States on the basis of adult suffrage. • Every citizen who is not less than 18 years of age and is not otherwise disqualified is entitled to vote at such election. • The Council of State is not subject to dissolution. It is a permanent body. Onethird of its members retire on the expiration of every second year. • The normal term of the Lok Sabha is 5 years, but it may be dissolved earlier by the President. • The normal term of Lok Sabha can be extended by an Act passed by Parliament itself during Emergency. • The extension cannot be made for a period exceeding one year at a time. • Such extension cannot continue beyond a period of six months after the proclamation of Emergency ceases to operate. • Parliament must meet at least twice a year and not more than six months shall elapse between two sessions of Parliament. • The power to adjourn the daily sittings of Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha belongs to the Speaker and the Chairman, respectively. • A dissolution brings Lok Sabha to an end so that there must be a fresh election while prorogation merely terminates a session. • On dissolution of the Lok Sabha all matters pending before the House lapse. • But a Bill pending in the Rajya Sabha which has not yet been passed by the Lok Sabha not lapse on dissolution. • A dissolution does not affect a joint sitting of the two Houses, if the President has notified his intention to hold a joint sitting before the dissolution.

Qualification (Article 84)

For a person to be chosen as a Member of the Parliament: • Must be a citizen of India. • Must make and subscribe before the person authorised by the Election Commission on

oath or affirmation according to the form prescribed in the Third Schedule. • Must not be less than 30 years of age in the case of Rajya Sabha and not less than 25 years of age in the case of the Lok Sabha. • Must possess other qualification as prescribed by Parliament.

Disqualification (Article 102)

• • •

A person shall be disqualified for being elected as a Member of Parliament: If he holds any office of profit under the Union of State Government (except that of a Minister or any other office exempted by the Parliament). If he is of unsound mind. If he is declared insolvent. If he is not a citizen of India or has voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state or is under any acknowledgement of allegiance to a foreign State; and if he is so disqualified under any law made by the Parliament.

Speaker and Deputy Speaker of The Lok Sabha

• He is elected by Lok Sabha from amongst its members, as soon as, after the first meeting. • He remains in his office during the life of the Lok Sabha. He vacates office earlier in any of the following cases: • If he ceases to be member of Lok Sabha; • If he resigns by writing to the Deputy Speaker; and • If he is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the members of the Lok Sabha. Such a resolution can be moved only after giving 14 days advance notice.

Role, Powers and Functions of Speaker

• He maintains order and decorum in the House for conducting its business. • He adjourns the House to suspend the meeting in the absence of quorum (presence of only 1-10th of the total strength of the House). • He does not vote in the first instance, but he can exercise a casting vote in the case of a tie (dead lock). • He presides over a joint sitting of two Houses of the Parliament.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• He certifies a Bill and his decision cannot be challenged. • While a resolution for his removal is under consideration, the Speaker cannot preside but he can speak in, take part in the proceedings of the House and vote except in the case of equality of votes. • At other meetings of the House the Speaker cannot vote in the first instances but can exercise a casting vote in case of equality of votes.

249

• When a Money Bill is transmitted from the Lok Sabha to the Rajya Sabha the Speaker may certify that it is Money Bill. • The decision of the Speaker on whether a Bill is Money Bill is final. • While the office of Speaker is vacant or the Speaker is absent from a sitting of the House, the Deputy Speaker presides, except when a resolution for his own removal is under consideration.

Speakers of Lok Sabha 1.

Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar

15 May 1952–27 February 1956

2.

M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar

8 March 1956 –10 May 1957

3.

M. Ananthasayanam Ayyangar

11 May 1957–16 April 1962

4.

Hukum Singh

17 April 1962 –16 Mar, 1967

5.

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

17 March 1967 –19 July 1969 8 August 1969 –19 March 1971

6.

Dr. G.S. Dhillon

7.

Dr. G.S. Dhillon

20 March 1971 –1 December 1975

8.

Bali Ram Bhagat

5 January 1976–25 March 1977

Neelam Sanjiva Reddy

26 March 1977 –13 July 1977

10.

9.

K. S. Hegde

21 July 1977–21 January 1980

11.

Dr. Balram Jakhar

22 January 1980–15 January 1985

12.

Dr. Balram Jakhar

16 January 1985 –18 December 1989

13.

Rabi Ray

19 December 1989 –9 July 1991

14.

Shivraj Patil

10 July 1991–21 May 1996

15.

P. A. Sangma

22 May 1996–23 March 1998

16.

G. M. C. Balayogi

24 March 1998–20 October 1999

17.

G. M. C. Balayogi

22 October 1999–3 March 2002

18.

Manohar Joshi

10 May 2002–2 June 2004

19.

Somnath Chatterjee

9 June 2004–1 June 2009

20.

Meira Kumar

4 June 2009–4 June 2014

21.

Sumitra Mahajan

6 June 2014–till date

Deputy Speaker

2. It can authorise the Parliament to create new all-India Service (Common for both the Centre and States (Article 312).

Special Power of Rajya Sabha

Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha

• Anthasayanam Ayyangar was the First Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha. Due to its federal character, the Rajya Sabha has been given two exclusive or special powers that are not enjoyed by the Lok Sabha. 1. It can authorise the Parliament to make a law on a subject enumerated in the State List (Article 249).

• Vice-President of India is ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and functions as the Presiding Officer of that House so long as he does not officiate as the President.

250

General Knowledge  2020

• When the Chairman acts as the President to India, the duties of the Chairman are performed by the Deputy Chairman. • The Chairman may be removed from his office only if he is removed from the office of the Vice-President.

Privileges of Parliament

• • •

The privileges enjoyed by the members individually are: Freedom from Arrest: Exempts a member from arrest during the continuance of a meeting of the House or Committee thereof of which he is a member and during a period of 40 days before and after such meeting or sitting. This immunity is confined to arrest in civil cases and not in criminal cases or under the law of Preventive Detention. A member cannot be summoned, without the leave of the Houses to give evidence as a witness while Parliament is in session. There is freedom of speech within the walls of each House.

Money Bills and Financial Bills

• • • • • •

• •

A Bill is called Money Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with all or any of the following matters: The imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax. The regulation of the borrowing of money by the Government. The custody of or the withdrawal of moneys from the Consolidated Fund of India. The appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of India. The declaring of any expenditure to expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of India. The receipt money on account of the Consolidated Fund of India or the Public accounts of India or the custody or issue of such money or the audit of the account of the Union or of a State. A Money Bill cannot be introduced in the Rajya Sabha. After a Money Bill has been passed by the Lok Sabha, it is transmitted to the Rajya Sabha (with the Speaker’s certificate that it is a Money Bill).

• The Rajya Sabha can neither reject a Money Bill nor amend it. It must, within a period of fourteen days from the date of receipt of the Bill, return the Bill to the Lok Sabha with its recommendations. Lok Sabha may accept or reject all or any of the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha. • It is up to the Lok Sabha to accept or reject the recommendations of the Rajya Sabha. If the Lok Sabha accepts any of the recommendations the Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses with Lok Sabha. • If a Money Bill is not returned by the Rajya Sabha within fourteen days, it shall be deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form in which it was passed by the Lok Sabha. • Only those Financial Bills are Money Bills which bear the certificate of the Speaker as such. • Financial Bills which do not receive the Speaker’s certificate are of two classes. (a) A Bill which contains any of the matters specified in Article 110 but does not consist solely of those matters. It can be introduced in Lok Sabha only on the recommendation of President. Rajya Sabha can amend or reject such Bills. (b) Any Ordinary Bill which contains provisions involving expenditure from the Consolidated Fund.

Joint Session (Article 108)

• The President can summon Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha for a joint sitting in case or disagreement between the two Houses in following ways: ƒƒ If, after a Bill has been passed by one House and transmitted to the other House. ƒƒ The Bill is rejected by the other House. ƒƒ The Houses have finally disagreed about the amendments to be made in the Bill. ƒƒ More than six months have lapsed from the date of the reception of the Bill by the other House without the Bill being passed by it. • The Speaker presides the joint sitting. In the absence of the Speaker, Deputy Speaker

Indian Polity and Constitution

or Chairman of Rajya Sabha or Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha or a person chosen by the MPs may preside in the same order. • So far, joint sittings have been held thrice in the history of Indian Parliament (1960, 1977 and 2002).

Extents of the Powers of Rajya Sabha

• Though the Rajya Sabha can discuss, it cannot vote for the public expenditure and demands for grants are not submitted for the vote of the Rajya Sabha. • The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha and not to the Rajya Sabha. • Parliament can legislate on a State subject only if Rajya Sabha resolves for this by a 2/3rd majority. • New All-India services can be created only after Rajya Sabha resolves for this with a 2/3rd majority.

Financial Legislation in Parliament

• At the beginning of every financial year, on behalf of the President of India, a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for that year is laid before both the Houses of Parliament. • This is known as the “annual financial statement.” • No demand for a grant can be made except on the recommendation of the President. • The scrutiny of budget proposals is done by the Parliament’s Committee on Estimates in order to: • The Comptroller and Auditor General is the guardian of the public fund and it is his function to see that not a paisa is spent without the authority of Parliament. • The report of Comptroller and Auditor General laid before the Parliament is examined by the Public Accounts Committee.

Difference Between Powers of Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha

• A Money Bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and not in the Rajya Sabha.

251

• The speaker of Lok Sabha Presides over the joint sitting of both the houses of Parliament. • A resolution for the discontinuance of the National Emergency can be passed only by the Lok Sabha and not by the Rajya Sabha. • The Rajya Sabha cannot remove the Council of Ministers by passing a noconfidence motion.

Leader of the Opposition

• Government has given statutory recognition to the leaders of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. • For the first time Y.B. Chavan of the Congress (I) was given the official status of Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha with the rank of a Cabinet Minister.

Stages of Bills Introduction of the Bill • It involves introduction of the Bill like provisions of the proposed law accompanied by the ‘Statement of object and reason’. Private member must give one month notice to introduce the Bill. • After that it is published in the Gazette of India. The introduction of the Bill and its publication in the Gazette constitutes the first reading of the Bill. Second Reading of the Bill • In the second reading, principles of the Bill are discussed in detail and the treasury and the opposition members give their views either in support or opposition of the Bill. • The second reading is divided into two stages: (i) consist of a general discussion of the principles of the Bill and (ii) relates to discussion of clauses, schedules and amendments. • If the Bill is referred to the selected committee or joint committee, it is expected to give its report within a specified date. • The Bill then undergoes long discussions clause by clause and may undergo sub­ stantial change. Third reading of the Bill • The third reading is the final reading. It is more or less formal affair. The debate is

252

General Knowledge  2020

confined to the acceptance or rejection of the Bill. The Bill is submitted to the vote of the house and has to be accepted or rejected altogether. Bill in the Second House • After the Bill has been passed by one House, it is transmitted to the other House. • In case the Bill is also passed by the second House or the first House agrees with the amendments made by the second House, the Bill is sent to the President of his assent. • In case the Bill is rejected by the second House or it is kept by the second House with it for six months without any action or the first House disagrees with the amazements suggested by the second House a deadlock is deemed to have taken place. Assent of the President • After being passed by both Houses, the Bill is presented to the President. • If the President assents to the Bill, it becomes an Act. • If the President withholds his assent, the Bill ends. • If the President returns the Bill for recon­ sideration and it is passed again by both the Houses, he has to give his assent after the second passage.

The Budget

• The budget is contained in Articles 112 to 117. • According to Article 112, the President shall in respect of every financial year cause to be laid before both the Houses of Parliament a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of the Government of India for that year, in this part referred to as the ‘annual financial statement’. • It is a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditures both revenue and capital of that financial year. • T h e e x p e n d i t u r e o f g o v e r n m e n t i s classified as ‘charged’ and made from the consolidated fund of India. • The General Budget is usually presented in the Lok Sabha by Finance Minister on the last working day of February. • The General Budget is presented with the Budget speech by the Finance Minister.

• The Budget speech has two parts. Part A deals with general economic survey of the country and policy statements. Part B contains Tax proposals. • At the end of the Budget speech in Lok Sabha, the Budget is laid in Rajya Sabha. • Rajya Sabha can only discuss the budget. • After the general discussion the house is adjourned for the period of a month. • During this time the 24 standing committees carry out detailed scrutiny of the budget. • Voting on demands for grants takes place in Lok Sabha. • The time allotted for the discussion is decided by the business advisory committee headed by the speaker. • After the completion of voting on demands for grants, appropriation bill is introduced. • Finance Bill includes taxation Proposals and introduced with the General Budget, it has to be passed within 25 days of its introduction. • No amendments can be moved to an amount appropriation bill to vary the amount or alter the destination which is unlike the finance bill. Consolidated Fund of India (Article 266) • It is a fund to which all receipts are credited and all payments are debited. In other words: (a) all revenues received by the government of India, (b) all loans raised by the government by the issue of treasury bills, loans or ways and means of advances, (c) all money received by the government in repayment of loans from the Consolidated Fund of India. Contingency Fund of India • Article 267: The Constitution authorised the Parliament to establish a ‘Contingency Fund of India’. • This fund is placed at the disposal of the President. • The fund is held by the finance secretary on behalf of President. Public Account of India • Article 266 (2) provides that all other public moneys (other than those in the Consolidated Fund of India) received by or

Indian Polity and Constitution

on behalf of the Government of India or the Government of India or the Government of a State shall be credited to the Public Account of India or the Public Account of the State, as the case may be. • This account is operated by executive action and payments from it do not need Parliamentary approval.

Committee System

• The Public Accounts Committee was setup first in 1921. At present, it consists of 22 members (15 from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). Since, 1967, a convention has developed whereby the Chairman of the Committee is selected invariably from the opposition. • The first Estimates Committee was set up in 1950. It has thirty members, all from the Lok Sabha only. • The Committee on Public Undertakings was created in 1964 on the recommendations of the Krishna Menon Committee. It has 22 members (15 from the Lok Sabha and 7 from the Rajya Sabha). • In case, Speaker is a member of a committee, he becomes Exofficio Chairman of the Committee Allocation of seats in Parliament S. No. 1.

States/UTs

Rajya Sabha Lok sabha 11

25

1

2

3.

Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Assam

7

14

4.

Bihar

16

40

5.

Chhattisgarh

5

11

6.

Goa

1

2

7.

Gujarat

11

26

8.

Haryana

5

10

9.

3

4

4

6

6

14

2.

11.

Himachal Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Jharkhand

12.

Karnataka

13.

Kerala

10.

12

28

9

20

14.

253

15.

Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

11

29

19

48

16.

Manipur

1

2

17.

Meghalya

1

2

18.

Mizoram

1

1

19.

Nagaland

1

1

20.

Odisha

10

21

21.

Punjab

7

13

22.

Rajasthan

10

25

23.

Sikkim

1

1

24.

Tamil Nadu

18

39

25.

Tripura

1

2

26.

Uttrakhand

3

5

27.

31

80

28.

Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

29.

Telangana

16

42

7

17

Union Territories 1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Andaman and Nicobar Islands Chandigarh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Daman and Diu Delhi (The capital territory of Delhi) Lakshadweep Puducherry

1

1

1

1

3

7

1

1

1

Nominated Members

12

2

Total

245

545

Parliamentary Terms

Question Hours: The day’s business normally begins with the Question Hour during which questions asked by the members are answered by the Ministers. The different types of questions are: i. Starred Question is one for which an oral answer is required to be given by

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General Knowledge  2020

the Minister on the floor of the House. ii. Unstarred Question is one for which the Minister lies on the table written answer. iii. Short Notice Question is one for which can be asked by members on matters of public importance of an urgent nature.

Quorum

A Quorum is the minimum number of members of a deliberative assembly necessary to conduct the business of that group. Quorum for either House [Article 100 (c)] is 1/10th of the total number of members. There are three types of cut motions: i. Disapproval of policy cut says that ‘the amount of the demand be reduced by `1’. ii. Economy cut asks for a reduction of the amount of the demand by a specific amount. iii. Token cut says that, the amount of the demand be reduced by `100. Adjournment Motion: It is a motion to adjourn the proceedings of the House so as to take up for discussion some matter of urgent public importance. Any member can move the motion and, if more than fifty members support the demand, the Speaker grants permission for the motion. Calling Attention Motion: A member may, with prior permission of the Speaker, call the attention of a Minister to any matter of urgent public interest or ask for time to make a statement. Privilege Motion: It is a motion moved by a member if he feels that a Minister has committed a breach of privilege of the House or of any one or more of its members by withholding facts of a case or by giving a distorted version of acts. Vote on Account: As there is usually a gap between the presentation of the Budget and its approval, the vote on account enables the Government to draw some amount from the Consolidated Fund of India to meet the expenses in the intervening period.

Zero Hour: From 12-1 pm daily. This time is allotted everyday for miscellaneous business, call-attention notices, question on official statements and adjournment motions.

Types of Motions

• Censure Motion: It can be moved only in the Lok Sabha and only by the opposition. It can be brought against the ruling Government or against any Minister for the failure of an act of seeking disapproval of their policy. • No Confidence Motion: It can be moved only in the Lok Sabha and only by the opposition. It needs the support of 50 members to be admitted. It can be brought only against the Council of Ministers and not against any individual Minister. • Cut Motions: They are moved in the Lok Sabha only. They are related to the budgetary process which seeks to reduce the amount for grants.

Whip

• A directive issued by any political party to ensure the support of its members voting in favour or against a particular issue on the floor of the House.

Guillotine

• When due to lack of time, demand for grants are put to vote whether they are discussed or not in the House on the last day of the allotted time, it is called Guillotine and it concludes the discussion on demands for grants.

Executive of the States: the Governor • If a member of a Legislature is appointed governor, he ceases to be a Member immediately upon such appointment. • The Governor is the Constitutional Head of the State and the same Governor can act as Governor of more than one State (Articles 153 and 154). • Under Article 155, the Governor is appointed by the President. Article 156 states that the

Indian Polity and Constitution

Governor holds office during the pleasure of the President.

Qualification of Governor

• • • •

Under Article 158, the Constitution lays down the following conditions for the Governor’s office: Must be citizen of India. Completed 35 years of age. Shall not be a member of both the Houses of Parliament or of a House of Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council (if any). Shall not hold office of profit.

Oath (Article 159)

• His oath is administered by the Chief Justice of the concerned State High Court and in his absence, the seniormost Judge of that Court.

Tenure of Governor Under Article 156

255

• System of sending fortnightly report to the President by the Governor must continue. • The power of the Governor to refer any Bill to the Centre for the President’s assent must continue.

Articles related with Governor Article-153 : Provision for the office of the Governor. Article–154 : Executive powers of Governor. Article-155 : Appointment of the Governor. Article-156 : Terms of the office. Article-157 : Qualifications for the appointment of the Governor. Article-158 : Conditions for the Governor’s office. Article-159 : Oath of the office to the Governor.

(a) The Governor shall hold office during the pleasure of the President; (b) He may resign by writing under the hand addressed to the President; (c) He holds office for a period of 5 years. (d) There is no bar to a person being app­ ointed Governor more than once.

Article-161 : Judicial powers of the Governor.

Sarkaria Commission Report on the office of Governor

Article-168 : Governor is an integral part of the state legislature.

• The State must be consulted before the appointment of a person to the office of the Governor. • The Governor should not belong to the same State. • He should be an eminent figure in any walk of life. • He should be a detached figure and not too intimately connected with the local politics of the state. • He should not have been actively involved in politics in recent past. • He should not be a politician of the ruling party at the Centre, if the State to which he appointed is ruled by some other party (parties). • Persons of the minority groups should continue to be given a chance.

Article-164 : Appointment of Ministers by the Governor. Article-165 : Appointment of the AdvocateGeneral. Article-166 : All executive actions of state are formally taken in his name.

Article-174 : Right of summoning, proroguing and dissolving. Article-200 : Reservation of Bill for President’s consideration. Article-202 : Laying of state budget before the legislature. Article–213 : Power to promulgate Ordinances. Article-233 : Appointment and posting of District Judges by the Governor.

Powers of Governor

Executive: Governor has the power to appoint Council of Ministers, Advocate General and the members of the State Public Service Commission.

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General Knowledge  2020

• The Ministers as well as Advocate General hold office during the pleasure of the Governor but the Members of the State Public Service Commission can be removed jointly by the President on the report of the Supreme Court and in some cases on the happening of certain disqualification. • The Governor has no power to appoint Judges of the State High Court but he is entitled to be consulted by the President in the matter. • Like the President the Governor has the power to nominate members of the AngloIndian Community to the Legislative Assembly of his State.

Legislative Powers

• Governor is an integral part of the State Legislature. He has the right of addressing and sending message and of summoning proroguing and dissolving the State Assembly. • He has the power to nominate one member of Anglo-Indian Community to the Legislative Assembly of the State. • He appoints 1/6th members of Legislative Council.

Financial Powers

• State budget is laid before the State Leg­ islature by him. • He constitutes a State Finance Commission after every five years.

Judicial Powers (Article 161)

• He can grant pardons, reprives, respites and remissions of punishment or suspend, remit and commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter, to which the executive power of the State extends.

Emergency Powers

• He reports to the President, if the State Government is not running constitutionally and recommends to the Union Government, President’s Rule (Article 356).

Discretionary Functions of the Governor

• The functions which are specially required by the Constitution to be exercised by the Governor in his discretion are:

• The Governor of Assam can determine the amount payable by the State of Assam to the District Council, as royalty accruing from licenses for minerals. Where a Governor is appointed administrator of an adjoining Union Territory, he can function as such administrator independently of his Council of Ministers. The President may direct that the Governor of Maharashtra or Gujarat shall have a special responsibility for taking steps for the Development of Vidarbha and Saurashtra. The Governor of Nagaland has similar special responsibility with respect to law and order in that State. Governor of Sikkim has special responsibility for peace and equitable arrangement and has the power to dismiss an individual Minister at any time. Governor can dismiss a Council of Ministers or the Chief Minister, only when the Council of Ministers has lost confidence of the Legislative Assembly and the Governor does not think fit to dissolve the Assembly.

Chief Minister’s (CM) Appointment Article 164, says that Chief Minister shall be appointed by the Governor of the State.

Oath, Term and Salary

• Oath of the office of Chief Minister is administered by the Governor to person appointed for this purpose. • A person, who is not a member of State Legislature can be appointed but he has to get himself elected within 6 months otherwise he is removed. • The term of the CM is not fixed and he holds office during the pleasure of the Governor. • He cannot be dismissed by the Governor as long as he enjoys the majority support in the Legislative Assembly. But, if he loses the confidence of the Assembly, he must resign or the Governor can dismiss him. • The salary and allowances of the Chief Minister are determined by the State Legislature.

Powers and Functions A. In Relation to Council of Ministers (CoMs) The CM as a head of the CoMs, enjoys the following powers:

Indian Polity and Constitution

• The Governor appoints only those persons as Ministers, who are recommended by the Chief Minister. • He allocates and reshuffles the portfolios among Ministers. • He can ask a minister to resign or advise the Governor to dismiss him in case of difference of opinion. • As the Chief Minister is the head of the Council of Ministers, his resignation or death automatically dissolves the Council of Ministers. B. In Relation to the Governor • He is the principle channel of comm­ unication between the Governor and the Council of Ministers. C. In Relation to State Legislature • Advises the Governor with regard to summoning and proroguing the sessions of the State Legislature. • Recommend the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly to the Governor at any time State Council of Ministers • Articles 163 and 164 deal with Council of Ministers, in states. Oath and Salary • Oaths of office and secrecy is administered by the Governor or person appointed by him for this purpose.

The Advocate General

• He is appointed by the Governor of the State and holds office during the pleasure of the Governor. • Only a person who is qualified to be a Judge of a High Court can be appointed Advocate General. He receives such remuneration as the Governor may determine. • He has the right to speak and to take part in the proceedings of, but no right to vote in, the Houses of the Legislature of the State (Ref.: Art. 177).

The State Legislature

Only 6 States, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh are having Bicameral (Double House).

257

• As per Article 169, if the Legislative Assembly passes a resolution for abolishing or creating of the Legislative Council by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting, the Parliament may approve the resolution by a simple majority to create or abolish the Legislative Council. • The size of the Legislative Council may vary, but its membership should not be more than 1/3rd of the membership of the Legislative Assembly but not less than 40. • 5/6th of the total number of members of the Council is indirectly elected and 1/6th is nominated by the Governor. Of the total number of members of a Legislative Council: (a) 1/3rd elected from local bodies (municipalities and district boards). (b) 1/12th elected by graduates of 3 years standing and residing in the state. (c) 1/12th elected by teachers of 3 years standing in the State, not lower in standing than secondary school. (d) 1/3rd elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly of the State from amongst persons, who are not members of the assembly. (e) Rest (1/6th) are nominated by the Governor from person of special knowledge or practical experience of literature, science, art, co-operative movement and social service. • The Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) consists of not more than 500 members and not less than 60 members. However, the Legislative Assemblies of Sikkim, Goa, Mizoram and Puducherry have less than 60 members each. • Governor can nominate one member of the Anglo-Indian community in the Assembly. • The duration of the Legislative Assembly is five years. It may be dissolved sooner than five years, by the Governor. • The term of five years may be extended by the Parliament in case of a proclamation of

258

General Knowledge  2020

Emergency by the President for not more than one year at a time. • The Legislative Council is not dissolved. Onethird of the members of Legislative Council retire on the expiry of every second year. • A Legislative Assembly has its Speaker and Deputy Speaker and a Legislative Council has its Chairman and Deputy Chairman and the provisions relating to them are analogous to those relating to the corresponding offices of the Union Parliament.

Qualifications for Membership of State Legislature are:

• Should be a citizen of India; • for Legislative Assembly, not less than twenty-five years of age and for Legislative Council not less than thirty years of age; • Should possess other qualifications prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament.

Membership of the State Legislature

Under Article 173, they must fulfill the following conditions: (a) He must be a citizen of India. (b) He must make and subscribe before the person authorised by the Election Commission an oath or affirmation according to the form prescribed in the Third Schedule. (c) He must be not less than 30 year of age in the case of the Legislative Council and not less than 25 years of age in the case of the Legislative Assembly. (d) He must possess other qualifications prescribed by Parliament, under Representation of People Act, 1951.

Oaths or Affirmation

Administered by Governor or persons appointed by Governor or a person appointed by him for this purpose.

Vacation of Seats (in Cases of)

• Double membership • Disqualification • Resignation

• Absence (more than 60 days without permission)

Other cases

• if his election is declared void by the court, • if he is expelled by the House, • if he is elected for the office of the President or office of Vice-President, and • if he is appointed to the office of Governor of a State.

Duration of the Two Houses

• Legislative Assembly Same as Lok Sabha. • Legislative Council Same as Rajya Sabha.

Presiding Officers of State Legislature

• Speaker/Deputy Speaker in Legislative Assembly (Article 178). • Chairman/Deputy Chairman in Legislative Council (Article 182). Speaker of Assembly is elected by the Assembly itself from amongst its members. He can vacate his office earlier in any of the following three cases: • If he ceases to be a member of the assembly; • If he resigns by writing to the Deputy Speaker, and • If he is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the members of the Assembly. Such a resolution can be moved only after giving 14 days’ advance notice (Article 179).

Powers and Duties of Speaker

• He adjourns the Assembly or suspends the meeting in the absence of a quorum. • He decides whether a Bill is a Money Bill or not and his decision on this question is final. • He decides the questions of disqualification of a member of the Assembly, arising on the ground of defection under the provisions of the Tenth Schedule. Strength of legislative Assembly S. No.

State / Union territory

1.

Andhra Pradesh

2.

Arunachal Pradesh

3.

Assam

Number of Seats 175 60 126

Indian Polity and Constitution

S. No.

State / Union territory

259

Chairman of Legislative Council

Number of Seats

4.

Bihar

243

5.

Chhattisgarh

90

6.

Goa

40

7.

Gujarat

8.

Haryana

90

9.

182

Himachal Pradesh

68

10.

Jammu and Kashmir

87

11.

Jharkhand

81

12.

Karnataka

224

13.

Kerala

140

14.

Madhya Pradesh

230

15.

Maharashtra

288

16.

Manipur

60

17.

Meghalaya

60

18.

Mizoram

40

19.

Nagaland

60

20.

Odisha

147

21.

West Bengal

295

22.

Punjab

117

23.

Rajasthan

200

24.

Sikkim

25.

Tamil Nadu

235

26.

Telangana

119

27.

Tripura

28.

Uttarakhand

29.

Uttar Pradesh

32

60 70 403

Union Territories 1.

Delhi

70

2.

Puducherry

30

Legislative Council 1.

Uttar Pradesh

2.

Andhra Pradesh

100 58

3.

Karnataka

75

4.

Bihar

75

5.

Maharashtra

78

6.

Jammu and Kashmir

36

7.

Telangana

40

The Chairman is elected by the Council itself from amongst its members. The Chairman vacates his office in any of the following three cases: • If he ceases to be a member of the council; • If he resigns by writing to the Deputy Chairman; and • If he is removed by a resolution passed by a majority of all the members of the Council. Such a resolution can be moved only after giving 14 days’ advance notice.

Legislative Procedure

• A Money Bill can be introduced only in the Legislative Assembly. • In case of an Ordinary Bill, the Legislative Council can hold the Bill for a maximum period of three months. • There is no provision for joint sitting in case of difference between the two houses.

Governor’s Power of Veto

• When a Bill is presented before the Governor after its approval by the Houses of the Legislature, the Governor can: ƒƒ Declare his assent to the Bill, in that case it would become law at once. ƒƒ Declare that he withholds his assent to the Bill; such a Bill fails to become a law. ƒƒ Declare that he withholds his assent to the Bill (other than a Money Bill) and the Bill is returned with a message. ƒƒ Reserve a Bill for the consideration of the President. Such reservation is compulsory where the law in question would derogate the powers of the High Court.

Power of Governor to Promulgate Ordinances

• The Governor can promulgate Ordinance only when the Legislature, or both Houses thereof, are not in session. • It must be exercised with the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers. • The Ordinance must be laid before the State Legislature when reassembles.

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General Knowledge  2020

• An Ordinance ceases to have effect after 6 weeks from the date of reassembly, unless disapproved earlier by that Legislature. • The Governor himself is competent to withdraw the Ordinance at any time. • Governor cannot promulgate Ordinances without instructions from the President if: ƒƒ A Bill containing the same provisions would require previous sanction of the President. ƒƒ Bill is required to be reserved for con­ sideration of the President.

Privileges of State Legislature

• Privileges of State Legislature are similar to those of Union Parliament. • No House of the Legislature can create any new privilege for itself. Court can determine whether the House possesses a particular privilege.

Union Territories

• National Capital Territory of Delhi and Puducherry are headed by the Lieutenant Governors. • Daman and Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli have a common administrator. Lakshadweep is also governed by an administrator. • Chandigarh and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are governed by a Chief Comm­ issioner. Delhi and Puducherry have Legislative Assemblies. • By the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act, Delhi was given the status of National Capital Territory of India.

Special Position of Jammu and Kashmir • Article 370 of the Indian Constitution accords special status to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. • Proclamation of Emergency under Article 352 on the ground of internal disturbance has no effect in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, without the concurrence of the Government of the State. • No decision affecting the disposition of the State can be made by the Government of India, without the consent of the Government of the State.

• The Union Government has no power to suspend the Constitution of the State or the ground of failure to comply with the directions given by the Union Government under Article 365. • Articles 356-357 relating to suspension of constitutional machinery have been extended to Jammu and Kashmir by the Amendment Order of 1964. • The Union has no power to make a Proclamation of Financial Emergency with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir under Article 360. • Directive Principles of States Policy do not apply to the State of Jammu and Kashmir. • Jammu and Kashmir has its own Constitution made by a separate Constituent Assembly and promulgated in 1957. • No alteration of the area or boundaries of Jammu and Kashmir can be made by Parliament without the consent of the Legislature of the State. • It has dual citizenship. Only the citizens of Jammu and Kashmir can take part in the election of the State Assembly and only they can buy immovable property in Jammu and Kashmir. • The residuary powers in respect of Jammu and Kashmir rest with the State Government and not the Union Government.

Panchayats Balwant Rai Mehta Committee

• The Government of India appointed a committee in 1957. • This committee was set up to examine the work of Community Development Programme (1952), and National Extension Service (1953). • The committee submitted its report in 1958. Recommendations • This committee recommends three level of governance viz zila parishad, Panchayat Samiti (Block) and Gram Panchayat (village). • District collector should be a chairperson of Zila Parishad. • The members of Zila Parishad and Panchayat samiti should be elected indirectly while the members of Gram Panchayat should be elected directly.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• These recommendations were accepted by NDC in Jan 1958. • Rajasthan was the first state to establish the institution of Panchayati Raj. • The scheme was inaugurated by the then P.M. Jawahar Lal Nehru on October 2, 1959 in Nagaur District in Rajasthan. • Rajasthan adopted a three tier system. • Tamil Nadu accepted a two tier system and West Bengal a four tier system.

Ashok Mehta Committee

• The Janata Government appointed a committee in 1977 on Panchayati Raj institutions under the chairmanship of Ashok Mehta. Recommendations • This committee recommends a two tier Panchayati Raj system—Zila Parishad & Mandal Panchayat. • Nyaya Panchayat should be kept as separate body. • Seats for SCs and STs should be reserved on the basis of their population. • T h e s e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s c o u l d n o t be implemented.

G.V. K. Rao Committee

• This committee was appointed by the planning commission in 1985. Recommendations • Zila Parishad should be of pivotal role in the scheme for democratic decentralisation. • Create the post of district development commissioner. • He should act as the chief executive officer of Zila parishad. • Reservation for SCs, STs & women • Recommendations could not be accepted.

L.M. Singhvi Committee

• Appointed by the Rajiv Gandhi Government in 1986. • Chairman: L.M. Singhvi

73rd Amendment Act of 1992

• The Act gives a constitutional status to the Panchayati Raj institutions. • The Act has added new part IX and 11th schedule to the constitution.

261

• It is entitled as “The Panchayats” and consists of provisions from Articles 243 to 243 (O). • It contains 29 functional items of the Panchayats and deals with Article 243 (G). • The provisions of the Act can be grouped into two categories-compulsory and voluntary. • The compulsory provisions of the Act are to be included in the State Laws creating the new Panchayati Raj System. • The voluntary provisions may be included at the discretion of the States. Main Characteristics • This Panchayati Raj system is for only those states having population of more than 20 lakhs. • The tenure of every Panchayat should be 5 years. • The election of the new Panchayat should be held before the expiry of its tenure or within 6 months of its dissolution. • Every Panchayat should have a chairperson. • The total number of the seats in every Panchayat should be filled by direct election. • Seats should be reserved for SCs & STs. • 1/3rd of the seats should be reserved for women. • The State Legislature may authorize a Panchayat to levy, collect and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls and fees. • State Legislature may also provide grantsin-aid to Panchayat. • All elections of Panchayats are conducted, supervised, directed and controlled by the State Election Commission. • The State Election Commissioner is appointed by the Governor. • He can be removed in the same manner as the Judge of the High Court. • The Chairperson of each Panchayat is elected according to the law passed by a State. • Seats are reserved in Panchayat for Sche­ duled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population [Article 243D]. • Out of the reserved seats, 1/3rd is reserved for women belonging to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 1/3rd of the total seats to be filled by direct election in every Panchayat are reserved for women. • Every Panchayat can continue for 5 years from the date of its first meeting. It can be dissolved earlier in accordance with State law.

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General Knowledge  2020

• A Panchayat reconstituted after premature dissolution, continues only for the remainder of the period. But if the remainder of the period is less than 6 months it is not necessary to hold elections. • All persons above 21 years of age and qualified to be a member of the State Leg­ islature are qualified as a member of a Panchayat [Article 243F]. • After the 73rd amendment of the Constitution (25 April 1993), every 5 years the States appoint a Finance Commission to review the financial position of the Panchayats and make recommendations. • State Election Commission consisting of a State Election Commissioner is appointed by the Governor for superintendence, direction and control of elections to Panchayats [Article 243K]. • The Community Development Programme was launched on October 2, 1952. • The Panchayati Raj was introduced for the first time on October 2, 1959 in Nagaur District of Rajasthan by the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru.

Three-Tier System (a) Village Panchayat • It consists of elected representatives of the people. • Chairman, i.e., Sarpanch is elected in a manner as the State Legislature may provide directly or indirectly. • Gram Sabha comprises the residing adults of the Panchayat. (b) Block and Panchayat Samiti • It is governed by the elected members of village Panchayat, which is called Panchayat. • Pradhan is the head or Chairman of Panchayat Samiti. • States with population less than 20 lakh need not constitute a Block Panchayat. (c) Zila Parishad • Members of the Zila Parishad are elected from the district by direct election on the basis of adult franchise for a term of 5 years. • Chairman of Zila Parishad is elected from amongst the members.

Municipalities • Most provisions for municipalities are similar to those contained in Part IX, e.g., Structure, Reservation of Seats, Functions, Sources of Income, etc. • The Constitution of India provides the provision of local self-government units in urban area by inserting Part IX-A through the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992. • The Constitution provides for three types of Municipalities. ƒƒ Nagar Panchayat ƒƒ Municipal Council ƒƒ Municipal Corporation • Ward Committees shall be constituted in those Municipalities having a population of three lakh or more. • Seats shall be reserved for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. • One-third of the seats shall be reserved for women. • The Constitution provides for a State Finance Commission. • Under Article 243ZD, a District Planning Committee shall be constituted to con­ solidate the plans prepared by the Pan­ chayats and Municipalities in the district. • Under Article 243ZE, a Metropolitan Planning Committee shall be constituted. • The members of a municipality are generally elected by direct election. • The Legislature of a State can provide for representation in municipalities of: ƒƒ Persons having special knowledge or experience in municipal administration. ƒƒ Members of Lok Sabha, State Assembly, Rajya Sabha and Legislative Council. ƒƒ The Chairpersons of Ward Committees.

)) Note: If the population is 3 lakh or more, Ward Committees are constituted.

The Supreme Court • Every Judge of the Supreme Court, after consulting the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, is appointed by the President of India.

Indian Polity and Constitution

• Article 124 states the establishment and constitution of Supreme Court. • At present, the Supreme Court consists of 31 Judges (one CJI and 30 Judges).

Qualifications

Under Article 124 (3), a person to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court should have the following qualifications: • He should be a citizen of India. He should have been a Judge of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years. Or • He should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years. Or • He should be a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the President.

Oath or Affirmation

Administered by the President or some person appointed by him for this purpose.

Tenure of Judges

The Constitution makes the following provisions: • Holds office until he attains the age of 65 years. • Resign his office by writing to the President. • Removed from his office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament.

Removal of Judges of Impeachment

Under Article 124 (4), a Judge of the Supreme Court shall not be removed from his office except by an order of the President passed after an address by each House of the Parliament by special majority. Judges can be removed only on the grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity. • No Judge of the Supreme Court has been impeached so far.

Salaries and Allowances

Under Article 125, the salaries, allowances, privileges, leave and pension of the Judges of the Supreme Court are determined from time-to-time by the Parliament.

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Acting Chief Justice

Under Article 126, The President can appoint a Judge of the Supreme Court as an acting CJI, when: • office of CJI is vacant; or • the CJI is temporarily absent; or • the CJI is unable to perform the duties of his office.

Ad hoc Judge

Under Article 127, if at any time there should not be a quorum of the Judges of the Supreme Court to hold or continue any session. CJI can appoint a Judge of the High Court as an Ad hoc Judge of the Supreme Court for a temporary period.

Constitutional Bench

A bench consisting of at least 5 judges constituted by the CJI to hear a case involving a substantial question of law.

Original Jurisdiction (Article 131)

The Supreme Court decides the dispute between: • the Centre and one or more States; • the Centre and any State or States on one side and one or more States on the other; or • between two or more States.

Appellate Jurisdiction (Article 132)

• It enjoys a wide appellate jurisdiction, which can be classified under four heads: (a) Appeals in constitutional matters. (b) Appeals in civil matters (Article 133). (c) Appeals in criminal matters (Article 134). (d) Appeals by special leave (Article 136).

Advisory Jurisdiction

• The Constitution (Article 143) authorises the President to seek the opinion of the Supreme Court. It is duly bound to give its opinion which is not binding on President.

Power of Judicial Review (Article 137)

• Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders of both Central and State Governments.

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• Article 141: Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts, within the territory of India. • Article 144: All authorities, civil and judicial in the territory of India to act in aid of the Supreme Court. • It was during Chief Justice P.N. Bhagwati’s tenure the concept of PIL was started in India. • The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court to entertain an application under Article 32 for the issue of writs for the enforcement of Fundamental Rights is treated as an ‘original’ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court though called writ jurisdiction. • The Supreme Court is the highest court of appeal from all courts in the territory of India. • Supreme Court is the highest authority for interpretation of the Constitution. • Supreme Court may hear appeals by granting special leave against any kind of judgment or order made by any court of tribunal (except a military tribunal). 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

Chief Justices of India Hiralal J. Kania 26 January 1950–6 November 1951 Patanjali Shastri 7 November 1951–3 January 1954 Mehr Chand 4 January Mahajan 1954–22 December 1954 B.K. Mukherjee 23 December 1954–31 January 1956 S.R. Das 1 February 1956–30 September 1959 B.P. Sinha 1 October 1959–31 January 1964 1 February Prahlad 1964–15 March Balacharya 1966 Gajendragadkar Amal Kumar 16 March Sarkar 1966–29 June 1966 Koka Subba Rao 30 June 1966–11 April 1967

10. 11.

12.

13.

14. 15.

16.

17. 18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

Kailash Nath Wanchoo Mohammad Hidayatullah

12 April 1967–24 February 1968 25 February 1968–16 December 1970 Jayantilal 17 December Chhotalal Shah 1970–21 January 1971 Sarv Mittra Sikri 22 January 1971–25 April 1973 Ajit Nath Ray 26 April 1973–27 January 1977 Mirza Hameedullah 28 January Beg 1977–21 February 1978 Yeshwant Vishnu 22 February Chandrachud 1978–11 July 1985 Prafullachandra 12 July 1985–20 Natwarlal Bhagwati December 1986 Raghunandan 21 December Swarup Pathak 1986–18 June 1989 Engalaguppe 19 June 1989–17 Seetharamiah December 1989 Venkataramiah Sabyasachi 18 December Mukherjee 1989–25 September 1990 Ranganath Mishra 26 September 1990–24 November 1991 Kamal Narain 25 November Singh 1991–12 December 1991 Madhukar Hiralal 13 December Kania 1991–17 November 1992 Lalit Mohan 18 November Sharma 1992–11 February 1993 Manepalli 12 February Narayana Rao 1993–24 October Venkatachaliah 1994 Aziz Mushabber 25 October Ahmadi 1994–24 March 1997

Indian Polity and Constitution 27.

28.

29.

30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36.

Jagdish Sharan Verma

25 March 1997–17 January 1998 Madan Mohan 18 January Punchhi 1998–9 October 1998 Adarsh Sein Anand 10 October 1998–31 October 2001 Sam Piroj 1 November Bharucha 2001–5 May 2002 Bhupinder Nath 6 May 2002–7 Kirpal November 2002 Gopal Ballav 8 November Pattanaik 2002–19 December 2002 V. N. Khare 19 December 2002–1 May 2004 S. Rajendra Babu 2 May 2004–1 June 2004 Ramesh Chandra Lahoti Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal

37.

K. G. Balakrishnan

38.

S. H. Kapadia

39.

Altamas Kabir

40.

P. Sathasivam

41. 42.

Rajendra Mal Lodha H. L. Dattu

43.

T. S. Thakur

44. 45.

J. S. Khehar Dipak Misra

46.

Ranjan Gogoi

1 June 2004–31 October 2005 1 November 2005–14 January 2007 14 January 2007–12 May 2010 12 May 2010–28 September 2012 29 September 2012–18 July 2013 19 July 2013–26 April 2014 27 April 2014–27 September 2014 28 September 2014–2 December 2015 3 December 2015–3 January 2017 4 January 2017– 28 August 2017 – 2 October 2018 3 October 2018 – incumbent

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The High Court • Accordingly, the President determines the strength of a High Court from time-to-time depending upon its workload. • The territorial jurisdiction of a High Court is co-terminus with the territory of a State.

Appointment of Judges

• Under Article 217, The Judges of the High Court are appointed by the President. • The Chief Justice of the High Court is appointed by the President after consultation with the Chief Justice of Supreme Court and Governor of the concerned state.

Qualification of Judges

• He should be a citizen of India. • He should have held a judicial office in the territory of India for ten years or • He should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years.

Oath (Article 219)

Administered by Governor or person appointed by him for this purpose.

Tenure (Article 217)

• He holds office until he attains the age of 65 years.

Removal

• He can resign from his office by writing to the President. • He can be removed from his office on the recommendation of the Parliament (same as Judge of Supreme Court). • He vacates his office when he is appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court or when he is transferred to another High Court.

Salaries and Allowances

• Determined by Parliament from time-to-time.

Jurisdiction and Power of High Court

• The Supreme Court can issue writ juri­ sdiction, only where a Fundamental Right

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has been infringed. High Court can issue these writs under Article 226 not only in such cases but also where an ordinary legal right has been infringed. • In making appointment as a High Court Judge, President can consult the Chief Justice of India, the Governor of the State and also the Chief Justice of that High Court. • A Judge of the High Court can hold office until the age of 62 years. • A High Court Judge can leave his office: ƒƒ By resignation in writing addressed to the President. ƒƒ By being appointed a Judge of the Supreme Court or being transferred to

any other High Court by the President. ƒƒ By removal by the President. • The qualifications for being a Judge of the High Court are: ƒƒ Should be a citizen of India. ƒƒ Not above 62 years of age. ƒƒ Must have held for at least 10 years a judicial office in territory of India or experience of at least 10 years as advocate of a High Court, or of two or more such courts in succession in India. • Salaries and allowances of the High Court Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State.

Jurisdiction and Seats of High Court Name

Year of Estab.

Territorial Jurisdiction

Seat

Madhya Pradesh

1956

Madhya Pradesh

Jabalpur (Benches at Gwalior and Indore)

Bombay

1862

Maharashtra, Dadra and Nagar haveli, Goa, Daman and Diu

Mumbai (Bench at Nagpur, Panji and Aurangabad)

Calcutta

1862

West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Kolkata (circuit bench) at Port Blair

Madras

1862

Tamil Nadu and Puducherry

Chennai

Allahabad

1866

Uttar Pradesh

Allahabad (Bench at Lucknow)

Karnataka

1884

Karnataka

Bengaluru

Patna

1916

Bihar

Patna

Orissa

1948

Odisha

Cuttack

Guwahati

1948

Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh

Guwahati (Benches at Kohima, Aizawal and Itanagar)

Rajasthan

1949

Rajasthan

Jodhpur (Bench at Jaipur)

Andhra Pradesh

1954

Andhra Pradesh and Telangana

Hyderabad

Kerala

1958

kerala and Lakshadweep

Ernakulam

Jammu and Kashmir

1928

Jammu and Kashmir

Srinagar and Jammu

Gujarat

1960

Gujarat

Ahmedabad

Delhi

1966

Delhi

Delhi

Punjab and Haryana

1875

Punjab, Haryana and Chandigarh

Chandigarh

Himachal Pradesh

1971

Himachal Pradesh

Shimla

Sikkim

1975

Sikkim

Gangtok

Indian Polity and Constitution Uttarakhand

2000

Uttarakhand

Nainital

Jharkhand

2000

Jharkhand

Ranchi

Chhattisgarh

2000

Chhattisgarh

Bilaspur

Manipur

2013

Manipur

Imphal

Meghalaya

2013

Meghalaya

Shillong

Tripura

2013

Tripura

Agartala

Appointment of District Judges (Article  233)

The appointment, posting and promotion of district judges in a State are made by Governor of the State in consultation with the High Court. A person to be appointed as district judge should have the following qualifications: • He should not already be in the service of the Central or the State Government. • He should have been an advocate or a pleader for seven years. • He should be recommended by the High Court.

Appointment of Other Judges

Appointments of person (other than district judges) to the judicial services of a State are made by the Governor of the State after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the High Court.

Lok Adalat

• This first Lok Adalat was held in Chennai in 1986. • The Lok Adalat is presided over by a sitting or retired judicial officer as Chairman, with two of other member, usually a lawyer and a social worker. • Lok Adalats have been given the status of a Civil Court and every award made by the Lok Adalat is final and binding on all parties and no appeal lies to any court against its award.

Lokpal

• The Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC) of India (1966-1970) recommended the setting up of two special authorities designated as Lokpal and Lokayukta for the redressal of citizens’ grievances. • The Lokpal deals with the complaints against ministers and secretaries at central and state level.

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• According to the ARC, the Lokpal would be appointed by the president after consultation with the Chief Justice of India, the speaker of Lok Sabha and the chairman of Rajya Sabha. • Ist time Lokpal bill was introduced in Parliament in May 1968, by the Congress Government headed by Indira Gandhi.

Lokayuktas

• According to ARC Report (1966-70) the Lokayukta (one at the centre and one in each state) would deal with the complaints against other specified higher officials which are not included in Lokpal. • L o k a y u k t a w a s e s t a b l i s h e d f i r s t i n Maharashtra in 1971. Although Odisha had passed the Act in this regard in 1970, it came into force only in 1983. Establishment of Lokayukta in states: Odisha (1974), Maharashtra (1971), Rajasthan (1973), Bihar (1974), Uttar Pradesh (1975), Madhya Pradesh (1981), Himachal Pradesh (1983), Karnataka (1985), Gujarat (1986), Punjab (1995), Kerala (1999), Jharkhand (2001), Chattisgarh (2002), Haryana (2002), Uttarakhand (2002), Goa (2011).

Inter-State Council • Inter-State Council was constituted in April, 1990 under Article 263. • Inter-State Council consists of Prime Minster, 6 Union Cabinet Ministers, the Chief Ministers of all the States and administrators of all UTs. • Inter-State Council is chaired by the Prime Minister and it meets thrice a year.

Finance Commission • T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s f o r t h e establishment of a Finance Commission

268

• •

General Knowledge  2020

(Articles 272, 273, 275, and 280) by the President. The Finance Commission consists of a Chairman and four other members. According to the qualifications prescribed by the Parliament, the Chairman is selected among persons who have had experience in public affairs. The members of the Commission hold office for such period as may be specified by the President in his orders and are eligible for reappointment. The main functions or duties of the Finance Commission are: ƒƒ To recommend to the President the basis for distribution of the net proceeds of taxes between the Centre and States.

Finance Commission

Year of Establishment

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Thirteenth Fourteenth

1951 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1977 1983 1987 1992 1998 2002 2007 2013

ƒƒ To recommend the principles which should govern the grants-in-aid to be given to States out of the Consolidated Fund of India. ƒƒ To tender advice to the President on any other matter referred to the Commission in the interest of sound finance. ƒƒ To suggest amounts to be paid to the States of Assam, Bihar, Odisha and West Bengal in lieu of the assignment of system of export duty on Jute products. • The Commission submits its recom­ men dation s to th e Presiden t wh ich are generally accepted by the Central Government. The recommendations of the Commission are applicable for a period of five years.

Finance Commissions Name of Chairman K. C. Neogi K. Santhanam A. K. Chanda P. V. Rajamannar Mahavir Tyagi K. Brahmananda Reddy J. M. Shelat Y. B. Chavan N. K. P. Salve K. C. Pant A. M. Khusro C. Rangarajan Dr. Vijay L. Kelkar Dr. Y.V. Reddy

National Development Council (NDC) • The National Development Council was formed in 1952, to associate the States in the formulation of the Plans. • All members of the Union Cabinet, Chief Ministers of States, the Administrators of the Union Territories and members of the Planning Commission are members of the NDC.

Period of implementation of Report 1952–57 1957–62 1962–66 1966–69 1969–74 1974–79 1979–84 1984–89 1989–95 1995–2000 2000–2005 2005–2010 2010–2015 2015–2020

• It is extra-constitutional and extra-legal body.

National Integration Council • National Integration Council was set-up in 1986.

Inter-State Relations • Under Article 262 Parliament has constituted the Inter-State Water Disputes Tribunal for adjudication of disputes between States

Indian Polity and Constitution

• • • •

for the waters of any inter-State river or river valley. Inter-State river water disputes are excluded from the jurisdiction of all Courts including the Supreme Court. An inter-State Council has been constituted for co-coordinating in inter-State disputes. Six Zonal Councils have been established to discuss and advise on matters of Common interest. Each Zonal Council consists of the Chief Minister and two other Ministers of each of the States in the Zone and the Administrator in the case of a Union Territory. The Union Home Minister has been nominated to be the common Chairman of all the Zonal Councils.

A. Legislative Relations

• The Constitution divides the subjects into the Union List (99 subjects), the State List (66 subjects) and the Concurrent List (47 subjects). Enumerated in the Seventh Schedule under Article 246. • Parliament has exclusive power to legislate on subjects mentioned in the Union List. • State Legislatures have exclusive power to legislate on subjects mentioned in the State List. • Both Parliament and State Legislatures can legislate on subjects mentioned in the Concurrent List. • Residual Power (i.e. subjects not included in any of the list) rest with Union Government.

B. Administrative Relations

• All disputes between States regarding the use, distribution or control of water are decided by the Centre (Article 262).

C.

Financial Relations

• The Union Government has the power to borrow from within India or outside, subject to the limits laid down by the Parliament: the borrowing power of the States is subject to several limitations and cannot borrow from outside India.

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Emergency Provisions • President can make proclamation of emergency under Article 352 in case of war, external aggression or armed rebellion or threat thereof only on recommendation of the Cabinet. • Every such proclamation must be laid before Parliament and it ceases to be in operation unless it is approved by resolutions of both the Houses of the Parliament with special majority within one month from the date of its issue. • The proclamation gets a fresh lease of 6 months from the date it is approved by both Houses of Parliament. • During an emergency, the Parliament can extend the normal life of the Lok Sabha for one year at a time, and not exceeding 6 months after the proclamation has ceased to operate. • Normal life of Lok Sabha was extended only once in 1976. • During emergency, Parliament can legislate regarding State subjects. • Effects of emergency on Fundamental Rights: ƒƒ Article 358 provides that the rights provided by Article 19, would be non-existent against the State during emergency. ƒƒ Under Article 359, the right to move the Courts for the enforcement of the rights can be suspended, by Order of the President. ƒƒ Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during emergency. • The first proclamation of emergency under Article 352 was made by the President on October 26, 1962 in view of Chinese aggression in the NEFA. • A proclamation of emergency for failure of constitutional machinery can be made by the President when the constitutional Government of State cannot be carried on for any reasons. • Under a proclamation of emergency under Article 352, Parliament can legislate in respect of State subjects only by itself; but under a proclamation under Article 356 of the other kind, it can delegate its power to

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Legislature for the State, to the President or any other authority specified by him. • Proclamation of emergency for failure of constitutional machinery can be extended by Parliament up to three years.

Public Service Commissions • A Joint Public Service Commission can be created by Parliament in pursuance of a resolution passed by the State Leg­ islatures concerned. • The Union Public Service Commission can serve the needs of a State, if so requested by the Governor of that State and approved by the President. • The appointment, determination of number of members of the Commission and their conditions of service is done by: ƒƒ The President in the case of the Union or a Joint Commission, and ƒƒ The Governor of State in the case of a State Commission. • Half of the members of Commission should be persons who have held office under the Government of India or of a State for at least 10 years (Article 316). • The term of service of a member of a Commission is 6 years from the date of his entering upon office, or until the age of retirement, whichever is earlier. • Age of retirement for a member of UPSC is 65 years. • Age of retirement for a member of PSC of a State or a Joint Commission is 62 years. • Services of a member of a Public Service Commission can be terminated by: ƒƒ Resignation in writing addressed to the President (to the Governor in the case of a State Commission). ƒƒ Removal by the President. • Even in the case of a State Commission, only the President can remove a member, while governor has only the power to pass in interim order of suspension. • The expenses of the Commission are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India or of the Sate (as the case may be). • The Chairman of the UPSC is ineligible for further employment either under the

Government of India or under the Gover­ nment of a State. • The Chairman of a State Public Service Commission is eligible for appointment as the Chairman or member of the Union Public Service Commission or as the Chairman of any other State Public Service Commission, but not for any other employment either under the Government of India or under the Government of a State. • A member of a State Public Service Commission is eligible for appointment as the Chairman of a State Public Service Commission and Chairman or member of UPSC, but not for any other employment either under the Government of India or under the Government of a State.

Functions of Public Service Commission

• To conduct examination for appointments to the services of the Union and State. ƒƒ To advise on any matter so referred to them and on any other matter which the President or the Governor of a State may refer to the appropriate Commission [Article 320]. ƒƒ To exercise such additional functions as may be provided for by an act of Parliament or of the Legislature of a State.

Election • Every person who is a citizen of India and not less than 18 years of age is entitled to vote at the election, provided he is not disqualified by law. • The exclusive forum for adjudicating disputes relating to the election of the President and Vice-president is the Supreme Court (Article 71).

Election Commission

• The Election Commission was established in accordance with the Constitution on 25 January 1950. • The Election Commission prepares, main­ tains and periodically updates the electoral roll, which shows who is entitled to vote, supervises the nominations of candidates,

Indian Polity and Constitution

registers political parties, and monitors the election campaign. It also organises the polling booths, counting of votes, and declaration of results, to ensure the orderly and fair manner of elections. • The Election Commission is independent of executive control to ensure a fair election. • The Election Commission consists of a Chief Election Commissioner and two other Election Commissioners. • President can determine the number of Election Commissioners.

Chief Election Commissioner (CEC)

• The President appoints the Chief Election Commissioner, who has tenure of 6 years, or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier. • The CEC enjoys the same status and receives the same salary and perks as available to Judges of the Supreme Court. • The Chief Election Commissioner can be removed from his office only in a manner and on the grounds prescribed for removal of Judge of the Supreme Court. • Other Election Commissioners can be removed by the President on the recommendation of the Chief Election Commissioner. • The Election Commission has the power of superintendence, direction and conduct of all elections to Parliament and the State Legislatures and of elections to the offices of the President and Vice-President.

Delimitation Commission of India • The main task of the Commission is to redraw the boundaries of the various Assembly and Lok Sabha Constituencies based on a recent census. • The representation from each State is not changed during this exercise. However, the number of SC and ST seats in a State is changed in accordance with the census. • The Commission in India is a high-power body whose orders have the force of law and cannot be called in question before any court. • In India, such Delimitation Commissions have been constituted 4 times–in 1952, 1963, 1973 and in 2002.

271

• The recent Delimitation Commission was set up on 12 July 2002 with Justice Kuldip Singh as its Chairperson. • The Constitution of India was specifically amended in 2002 (84th Amendment Act, 2001, which amended the provisions of Article 82) not to have delimitation of constituencies till the first census after 2026. • Election Commissioners of all the States and Union Territories, along with the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) of India are the members of the Delimitation Commission.

The Official Languages • Part XVII of the Constitution deals with the official language in Articles 343 to 351. • Hindi written in Devanagari Script is to be the official language of the Union. • Originally there were fourteen languages in Eighth Schedule, but eight were added during amendments. • The first Official Language Commission was appointed in 1955 under Shri B.G. Kher as Chairman.

Language of the State/Link Language:

• The Legislature of a State can adopt any one or more languages used in the State or Hindi for the official purposes of that State.

Language of the SC and HCl and Authoritative Text of Laws

• Until Parliament by law provides otherwise, English is the language of authoritative text of– ƒƒ All proceedings in the Supreme Court and in every High Court. ƒƒ All Bills or amendments thereto moved in either House of Parliament or the State Legislature. ƒƒ All Acts passed by Parliament or the Legislature of a State. ƒƒ All Ordinances promulgated by the President or the Governor of a Sate. ƒƒ All orders, rules, regulations and bylaws issued under Constitution or under any law made by Parliament or the Legislature of a State.

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General Knowledge  2020

• A State Legislature can prescribe the use of any language other than English for Bills and Acts passed by itself or Subordinate Legislation made thereunder. • The only privileges gained by the languages included in the Eighth Schedule are: ƒƒ To have a member in the Official Language Commission. ƒƒ To be considered for contribution towards the development of Hindi language.

Administrative Tribunals

• The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 added a new Part XIVA to the Constitution. This Part is entitled as ‘Tribunals’ and consist of only two Articles. Article 323A dealing with administrative tribunals and Article 323B dealing with tribunals for other matters. • The Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT).

Anti-Defection Law

• The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 provided for the disqualification of the Members of Parliament and the State Legislatures on the ground of defection from one Political Party to another. • Disqualification on ground of defection not to apply in case of split. • A member of a House belonging to any political party becomes disqualified for being a member of the House, (a) If he voluntarily gives up his membership of such political party; or (b) If he votes or abstains from voting in such House contrary to any direction issued by his political party without obtaining prior permission of such party and such act has not been condoned by the party within 15 days. • An Independent member of a House becomes disqualified to remain a member of the House, if he joins any political party after such election. • A Nominated member of a House become disqualified for being a member of the House, if he joins any Political Party after the expiry of six months from the date, on which he takes his seat in the House. • Member of Parliament or a State Legislature can be disqualified for defying a whip only

on two counts, when voting against the government or not agreeing to policies and programmes of the government.

Political Parties

• To be recognised as a National Party, a party needs to secure at least 6% of the valid votes polled in any four or more states in a general election to the Lok Sabha or State Assembly. In addition to it, it has to win at least four seats in the Lok Sabha from any State or States as well. • For getting recognition as a State Party, a political party has to secure at least 6% of the valid votes in the State during a general election, either to that of the Lok Sabha or the State Assembly. Apart from this, the party should also win minimum two seats in the Assembly of the State concerned.

NCRWC

• The National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up by a resolution of the Government of India in 2000. • The 11-Member Commission was headed by M.N. Venkatachaliah. It submitted its report in 2002.

Right of Information

• Right to information became an Act in 2005. The aim is to make the governments more transparent in its working. It came into operation on 12th October, 2005. • The Chief Information Commissioner and other Information Commissioners shall be appointed by the President on the recommendation of a committee consisting of the Prime Minister. The leader of the opposition in Lok Sabha and a Union Cabinet Minister are to be nominated by the PM.

National Symbols National Flag

• The national flag is a horizontal tricolour of deep saffron (Kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and dark green at the bottom in equal proportion. The ratio of width of

Indian Polity and Constitution

the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band is a new-blue wheel which represents the chakra. Its design is that of the wheel which appears on the abacus of the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. Its diameter approximates to the width of the white band and it has 24 spokes. The design of the National Flag was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 22 July 1947. • In an important judgement in January, 2004 the Supreme Court (under the chairmanship of the Chief Justice B. N. Khare) pronounce that unfurling (hoisting) of National Flag is a fundamental right under Article 19 (1) (A).

State Emblem

• The State Emblem is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capital of Ashoka. • In the State Emblem, adopted by the Government of India on 26 January 1950 only three lions are visible, the fourth being hidden from view. The wheel appears in relief in the centre of the abacus with a bull on right and a horse on left and the outlines of other wheels on extreme right and left. The bell-shaped lotus has been omitted. The words Satyameva Jayate from Mundakka Upanishad, meaning ‘Truth Alone’ Triumphs, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script.

National Anthem

• The song Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January, 1950. It was first sung on 27 December, 1911 at the Kolkata Session of the Indian National Congress. • Rabindranath Tagore had published it in ‘Tatvabodhini’ in 1912 with the title ‘Bharat Bhagya Vidhata’ and translated it into English in 1919 with the title ‘Morning song of India’. The credit of composing the present tune (music) of our national anthem goes to Captain Ram Singh Thakur (an I.N.A. sepoy).

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• Playing time of the full version of the national anthem is approximately 52 seconds.

National Song

• The song ‘Vande Mataram’ was composed in Sanskrit by Bankim Chandra Chatterji. It has an equal status with Jana-ganamana. The first political occasion was when it was sung at the 1896 session of Indian National Congress. • The song was published in the novel ‘Anandmath’, authored by Bankim Chandra Chatterji and was adopted as the National Song on 26 January, 1950.

National Calendar

• The National Calendar based on the Saka Era, Chaitra as its first month and a normal year of 365 days was adopted from 22nd March 1957 along with the Gregorian calendar. National Animal: The magnificent tiger (Panthera tigris). National Bird: The Indian peacock (Pavo cristatus). National Flower: Lotus (Nelumbo Nucifera). National Tree: The Banyan Tree (Ficus benghalensis). National Fruit: Mango (Mangifera indica). National Aquatic Animal: The mammal Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica).

Constitutional Amendments Under Article 368 of the Constitution, Parliament has the power of amending the Constitution. There are three methods: • Method of Simple Majority: The Con­ stitution can be amended by simple majority in matters relating to citizenship, abolishing or creating second chambers in the states creation of states or alteration of boundaries of existing states, etc. • In the Second Method, apart from passing through a special majority in Parliament, it should also be passed by half the state legislatures.

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General Knowledge  2020

Some important Amendments of the Constitution • 1st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1951: This amendment added Article, 15 (4) and Article, 19 (6). Ninth schedule to the Con­ stitution was also added by it. • 7th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1956: The categorisation of States into Part A, Part B and Part C ceased henceforth. Part C states were redesignated as Union Territories. • 10th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1961: Incorporated Dadra and Nagar Haveli as Union Territory. • 12th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962: Inclusion of territories of Goa, Daman and Diu into the Indian Union. • 13th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962: Insertion of Art. 371 A to make special provisions for the administration of the State of Nagaland. • 14th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1962: Pondicherry, Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam, the former French territories were specified in the Constitution as the Union Territory of Pondicherry (now Puducherry). • 15th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1963: It raised the age of retirement of a High Court Judge from 60 to 62. • 16th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1963: Charges were effected in Art. 19 to enable the Parliament to make laws providing reasonable restrictions on the freedom of expression in the larger interests of sovereignty and integrity of India. • 19th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1966: Art. 324 was amended to clarify the duties of the Election Commission. • 21st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1967: Sindhi language was included as 15th regional language in the Eighth Schedule. • 24th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971: It affirmed the Parliament’s power to amend any part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights by amending Arts. 368 and 13. • 25th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971 (came into force on 20.04.1972): It also provided that no law passed by the

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State to give effect to Directive Principles specified under Clauses (b) and (c) of Art. 39 can be declared void on the ground that it was inconsistent with Fundamental Rights conferred by Arts. 14, 19, and 31. 26th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1971: This amendment withdrew the recognition to the rulers of Princely States and their privy purses were abolished. 30th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1972 (w.e.f. 27.02.1973): It provided that only such appeals can be brought to the Supreme Court which involve a substantial question of law. 31st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1973: By this amendment, the seats of the Lok Sabha was increased from 525 to 545 but reduced the representation of UTs Lok Sabha from 25 to 20. 36th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1975: Made Sikkim a full-fledged State of the Union of India. 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1976 (Mini Constitution): It incorporated the words ‘Socialist’, ‘Secular’ and ‘Integrity’ in the Preamble. Fundamental Duties were added in Part IVA. Directive Principles were given precedence over Fundamental Rights and any law made to this effect by the Parliament was kept beyond the scope of Judicial review by the court. It authorised the President to make Proclamation of Emergency for any part of the country or to whole of India. It made it obligatory for the President to act on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Tenure of the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies was increased by one year. 43rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1977. 44th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1978 (w.e.f. June-September 1979): The amendment was brought by the Janata Party Government. Right to property was taken away from the list of Fundamental Rights and placed in a new Art. 300A as an ordinary legal right. Constitutionality of the Proclamation of Emergency by the President could be questioned in a court on the ground of malafide. In Article 352 regarding National

Indian Polity and Constitution

• •

Emergency, the words ‘internal disturbance’ were substituted by the words ‘armed rebellion’. It authorised the President to refer back the advice to the Council of Ministers for reconsideration, but made it binding for the President to act on the reconsidered advice. Constitutional protection on publication of proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures was provided. 52nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1985: It added the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution. 55th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1986 (w.e.f. February 20, 1987): The formation of Arunachal Pradesh took place with special powers given to the Governor. 56th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1987: Goa was made a full-fledged State with a State Assembly but Daman and Diu stayed as UT. 58th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1987: An authoritative text of the Constitution in Hindi was provided to the People of India by the President. 61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1988 (w.e.f. 28.03.1989): It brought about an amendment to Article 326 for the reduction of voting age from 21 to 18 years. 62nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1989: It increased the period of reservation of seats provided to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for another 10 years, i.e. up to 2000 A.D. The reservation for Anglo-Indians through nomination in case of their inadequate representation was also extended up to 2000 A.D. 65th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1990 (w.e.f. 12.03.1992): A National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with wide powers was provided to take care of the cause of SCs/STs. 66th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1990: This amendment provided for the inclusion of 55 new land reform acts passed by the States into the Ninth Schedule. 69th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1991: Arts. 239 AA and 239 AB were inserted in the Constitution to provide a National Capital Territory designation to

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Union Territory of Delhi with a legislative Assembly and Council of Ministers. 70th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992: Altered Art. 54 and 368 to include members of legislative assemblies of Union Territories of Delhi and Pondicherry in the electoral college for the election of the President. 71st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992: It included Manipuri, Konkani and Nepalese languages in the 8th Schedule. 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992: The institution of Panchayati Raj received Constitutional guarantee, status and legitimacy. The XI Schedule was added to deal with it. It also inserted part IX, containing Arts. 243, 243A. 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992: Provided for constitutional sanctity to Municipalities by inserting Part IX-A, containing Arts. 243P to 243ZG and the XII Schedule which deals with the items concerning Municipalities. 77th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1995: By this amendment a new clause 4A was added to Art. 16 which authorised the State to make provisions for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with regard to promotions in government jobs. 80th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000: Amended Art. 269 and substituted a new Article for Art. 270 and abolished Art. 272A of the Constitution. 81st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000: Amended Art. 16 (1) of the Constitution and added a new clause (4B) after clause (4A) to Art. 16 (1) of the Constitution. The new clause (4B) ends the 50% ceiling on reservation for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes and other Backward Classes in backlog vacancies. 82nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2000: This amendment restored the relaxation in qualifying marks and standards of evaluation in both job reservation and promotions to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 85th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2001: It amended clause (4A) of Art. 16

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and substituted the words “in matters of promotion, with consequential seniority, to any class” for the words “in matter of promotion to any class.” The amendment provided for ‘consequential seniority’ to the SCs/STs for promotion in government service. 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2002: Added a new Art. 21A after Art. 21 which makes the right of education for children of the age of 6 to 14 years a Fundamental Right. Substitutes Article 45 to direct the State to endeavour to provide early childhood care and education for all children until they complete the age of six years. Added a new Fundamental Duty to Part IV (Art. 51A) of the Constitution. 87th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: Provided that the allocation of seats in the Lok Sabha and division of each State into territorial Constituencies will be done on the basis of population as ascertained by the ‘2001 census’ and not by ‘1991’ census. 88th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: This amendment inserted new Article 268A after Article 268 which empowered the Union of India to levy ‘service tax’. 89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: Provided for the establishment of a separate National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 90th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: It stated that the representation of Scheduled Tribes and non-Scheduled Tribes in the Constitution of the Bodoland Territorial Area District shall be maintained. It meant that the representation of the above categories shall remain the same as existed prior to the creation of Bodoland Territorial Area District. 91st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: According to new clause (1A) the total number of Ministers, including the Prime Minister in the Central Council of Ministers or Chief Minister in the State Legislative Assemblies shall not exceed 15 per cent of the total members of the Lok Sabha in the Centre of Vidhan Sabha in the states. The new clause (1B) of Article 75

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provides that a member of either House of Parliament belonging to any political party who is disqualified for being member of that House on the ground of defection shall also be disqualified to be appointed as a minister under clause (1) of Arts. 75 and 164 until he is again elected. However, the number of Ministers, including the Chief Minister in a State shall not be less than 12 (in smaller States like Sikkim, Mizoram and Goa). 92nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003: It amended Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and has inserted four new languages in it, namely Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali. After this amendment the total number of constitutionally recognised official languages has become 22. 93rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2005: Provided reservation in admissions in private unaided educational institutions for students belonging to scheduled castes/ tribes and other backward classes. 94th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2006: Excluded Bihar from the provision to clause (1) of Art. 164. It extends the provisions of clause (1) of Art. 164 to the newly formed States of Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand. 95th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2009: Through this amendment in Art. 334 the words ‘sixty years’ have been substituted by ‘seventy years’. 96th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2011: Substituted ‘Odia’ for ‘Oriya’. 98th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2013: To empower the Governor of Karnataka to take steps to develop the Hyderabad Karnataka Region. 100th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2015: Exchange of certain enclave territories with Bangladesh and conferment of citizenship rights to residents of enclave consequent to signing of Land Boundary Agreement Treaty between India and Bangladesh. 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016: The One Hundred and twenty second Amendment Bill of the constitution of India, officially known as the one hundred and first amendment Act 2016, introduced

Indian Polity and Constitution

National Goods and Services Tax in India from 1 July, 2017. • Addition of articles: 246 A, 269 A, 279 A Deletion of article-268A. • Amendment of articles and schedule: 248, 249, 250, 268, 269, 270, 271, 286, 366, 368 and VI, VII, • 123rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 2017: It gives constitutional status to National Commission for Backward classes, inserts new articles 338B and 342 A which deal with composition of NCBC etc. and the power of president to notify the list of socially and educationally backward classes of State and Union Territory respectively.

Glossary of Constitutional Terms Act of God is a direct, violent, sudden and irresistible act of nature, which could not be by any reasonable care have been foreseen or resisted. Adjournment Motion, if Speaker given his consent after satisfying himself that the matter to be raised is definitely urgent and of public importance and holds that the matter prepared to be discussed is in order, he shall call the member concerned who shall rise in his place and ask for leave to move the adjournment of the House. If objection to leave being granted is taken, the Speaker shall request those members who are in favour of leave being granted to rise in their places and if not less than fifty members rise accordingly, the Speaker shall intimate that leave is granted, if not, he shall inform the House that the members have not to leave the House. Adjournment of House, in Lok Sabha the Speaker determines when sitting of House is to adjourn sine die or to a particular day or to an hour or part of same day while in Rajya Sabha it is the Chairman who determines. Admonition is a judicial or ecclesiastic censure or reprimand. Affirmation is a solemn declaration without oath.

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Anglo-Indian is of a British birth but living or having lived long in India. Appropriation Bill is the act of devoting or reserving for special or distinct purpose or of destining to a particular end; anything set aside especially money for a specific use. Backward Classes, the list of OBCs are prepared by the Central Government and are revised after the expiry of every 10 years. Beggar, is a labour or service exacted by court or a person in power without giving remuneration. Bill is a draft of a law proposed to a lawmaking body. Breach of privilege, disregard of any of the privileges, rights and immunities either of the members of Parliament individually or of either House of Parliament in its collective capacity or of its committees, also includes action which obstruct the House in the performance in its functions and thereby lower its dignity and authority such as disobedience of its legitimate order or libel upon itself, or its member or officers which are called contempt of the House. Bulletin, is an official notice of a public transaction or matter of public importance. Censure Motion is motion moved against the Government censuring its policy in some direction or an individual Minister or ministers of the Government. Chief whip is the Chief of the whips of different political parties in Parliament (generally the Minister of Parliamentary Affairs). Closure, is the Parliamentary Procedure by which debate is closed and the measure under discussion brought up for an immediate vote. Coalition, usually takes place in multi-party system in which no single party is able to command support of a working majority. Concurrent List, is list of subjects appended to a federal Constitution in respect of which the federal Legislature and the State of regional Legislatures have power to make laws, federal law prevailing in case of conflict.

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Constituent Assembly is a legislative body charged with task of framing or revising a Constitution, set up for India after it became independent in 1947 for the purpose of framing its Constitution. Contempt of court is a disobedience to or disregard of the rules, orders, process, or dignity of a court, which has power to punish for such offence by committal. Delegated Legislation, the Parliament gives the Executive the power to make rules and regulations regarding an act of the Parliament. Such rules are called Delegated Legislation. Doctrine of severability is a rule of inter­ pretation; it means that where some particular provision of statute offends against a constitutional limitation, but that provision is severable from the rest of the statute, only the offending provision will be declared void by the court and not the entire statute. Double jeopardy is subjection of an accused person to repeated trial for the same alleged offence. Due process of law is the law in conformity with due process a concept adopted by the American Constitution; the process of law which hears before it condemns; judiciary can declare a law bad, if it is not in accordance with due process even though the legislation may be within the competence of the legislature concerned. Electoral College is an intermediary body chosen by electors to choose the representatives in an indirect election. Electoral Roll: It is commonly known as voter’s list. It gives the names of all those people, who are eligible to vote. Equal protection, all individuals and classes will be equally subjected to the ordinary law administered by the law courts. Expulsion is the unseating of members of offences committed against the House or for grave misdemeanours. Gazette, is the official newspaper of the government. Hung Parliament is a Parliament wherein no party has won a working majority.

Judicial review is the power of the court to review statutes or administrative acts and determine their constitutionality. It is the examination of federal and State legislature statutes and the acts of executive officials by the courts to determine their validity according to written Constitutions. Legislature is the body of persons in a State authorised to make, alter and repeal law. It may consist of one or two Houses with similar or different powers. Locus standi means a place for standing, right to be heard. Martial law is arbitrary in its decisions and is not built on any settled principles. Minority is racial, religious or political groups smaller than and differing from larger, controlling group of which it is a party. Motion, is a proposal made in the House of a legislature to elicit its decision on a subject. Office of profit is an employment with fees and emoluments attached to it; where pay or salary is attached to an office, it immediately and indisputably makes the office and “office of profit”. Petition, is a solemn, earnest supplication or request to a superior or to a person or group in authority. Pith and substance is a doctrine relating to the interpretation of statutes, evolved by the Privy Council, to solve the problem of two competing legislatures. Preamble is an introduction, especially one to a constitutional statute, etc., stating its reason and purpose. Proportional representation is a method of representation designed to secure the election of candidates in proportion to the numerical strength of each section of political opinion thus accurately reflecting the political feeling of the country in Parliament. Question hour is the time fixed for asking and answering oral questions in a sitting in a legislature; it is fixed under the rules of the House or standing orders. Quorum is a minimum number required to be present at an assembly before it can validly proceed to transact business. Resjudicata is final judgement already decided

Indian Polity and Constitution

between the same parties or their privies on the same questions by a legally constituted court having jurisdiction is conclusive between the parties, and the issue cannot be raised again. Rule of law is absolute supremely or predominance of regular law as opposed to the influence of arbitrary power’s equality before the law or the equal subjection of all classes to the ordinary law court; constitution is the result of the ordinary law of the land. Shadow cabinet is a body of opposition leaders meeting from time to time and ready to take office. State comprises people, territory, government through which its policies are implemented and sovereignty having authority to make final legal decisions and having physical power to enforce them. Subordinate legislation is a making of statutory instruments or orders by a body subordinate to the legislature in exercise of the power within specific limits conferred by the legislature, also covers statutory instruments themselves.

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Untouchability is a social disability historically imposed on certain classes of people by reason of their birth in certain castes. Vote on account is estimate of an advance payment to enable government departments to carry on their work from beginning of financial year till the passing of appropriation Act. Vote of Credit: The Lok Sabha can grant vote of credit of meet expenditure whose amount or details cannot be precisely stated on account of magnitude or the indefinite character of service. Walk out is a strike, an informal or unau­ thorised strike, an action of leaving a meeting or organisation as an expression of disapproval; continued absence from the meetings of an organisation as an expression of disapproval. Zero hour is usually noisy interregnum between the Question Hour and the beginning of the rest of day’s business in a legislature; members raise often without notice various matters during this period. 

Indian Economy

283

Characteristics of Indian Economy Main characteristics of Indian economy are: i. Agrarian Economy: In an Agrarian economy, agriculture dominance prevails in both the Gross National Product (GNP) and employment. ii. Mixed Economy: It is an economy, where both public and private sector co-exist. iii. Developing Economy: Following features show that Indian economy is a developing economy: (a) Low per capita income. (b) Occupational pattern is primary producing. (c) Heavy population pressure. (d) Prevalence of chronic unemployment and underemployment. (e) Steadily improving rate of capital formation. (f) Low capital per head. (g) Unequal distribution of wealth/ assets.

Broad Sectors of Indian Economy

• Primary Sector: Agriculture forestry, fishing. • Secondary Sector: Mining, manufacturing, electricity gas and water supply, construction. • Tertiary Sector: (also called service sector) Business, transport, telecommunication, banking, insurance, real estate, community and personnel services.

I m p o r t a n t F a c t s R e l a t e d t o Characteristics of Indian Economy

• Primary sector of Indian Economy is agri­ culture and the related sectors. • Secondary sector of Indian Economy is related to industry, manufacturing, electricity, etc.

• Tertiary sector of Indian Economy is related to business, transport, communication and services. • The contribution of public sector in the gross production is less than 20%. • The best indicator of economic development of any country is per capita income. The following factors are important in economic development of a developing country: 1. Natural resources, 2. Capital gain, 3. Skilled-labour force, 4. Surplus sale of agriculture, 5. Justified social organisation, 6. Political freedom, 7. Freedom from corruption, 8. Technological knowledge and general education.

Agriculture and Land Development • Agriculture is the mainstay of the Indian Economy.

Importance of Agriculture

• Contribution to GDP(About one-fifth) • Contribution to Employment: Agriculture provides livelihood to more than half of the population (about 60 percent). • Contribution to Trade • It is also an important source of raw material for a vast segment of industry.

Agriculture and Five Year Plans

• The highest outlay on agriculture was during the First Plan, it was 31%. • Agriculture and allied sectors contribute nearly 18% of national income (GNI of India), while about 60% of the population is dependent on agriculture for their livelihood.

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• The agricultural output depends on mon­ taking into accounts the recommendation soon as nearly 60% of area sown in is of the Commission for Agricultural Cost dependent on rainfall. and Prices (CACP). MSP is that price at • Land utilisation data is available for which government is ready to purchase the 92.9% of total geographical area of 3,287.3 crop from the farmers directly, if crop price lakh hectares. falls below the MSP. • Importance of agriculture in the national • For sugarcane instead of MSP “Fair and economy is indicated by many facts, Remunerative Price” is declared. e.g., agriculture is the main support for • Kisan Credit Cards (KCCs) was introduced India’s transport systems, secure bulk in 1998-99 by NABARD. of their business from the movement of • Commission for Agricultural Costs and agricultural goods. Internal trade is mostly Prices (CACPs) was set up in 1965 with the in agricultural products. name Agricultural Price Commission and • Agricultural growth has direct impact on was renamed as CACP in 1985. poverty eradication. It is also an impor­ • The function of Agriculture Cost and tant factor in containing inflation raising Price Commission (ACPC) is to decide agricultural wages and employment the minimum support prices on behalf of generation. the government. • Commercial crops are those crops which are produced for trade purpose and not • For providing facilities relating to storage of agriculture products, “National Co-operative for self-consumption by the farmers. It Development and Warehousing Board” was includes–oilseeds crops, sugar crops, fibre crops, narcotic crops, beverage crops. established in 1957. Thereafter in States • Government announces Minimum Support also the State Warehousing Corporation Prices (MSPs) for 25 agricultural crops were established. Major Crops of India Types of Crops

Meaning

Major Crops

Foodgrains

Crops that are used for human consumption

Rice, Wheat, Maize, Millets, Pulses and oil seeds

Commercial Crops

Crops which are grown for sale either in raw form or in semi processed form

Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane, Tobacco and oil seeds

Plantation Crops

Crops which are grown on plantations covering large estates

Tea, Coffee, Coconut and Rubber

Horticulture

Sections of agriculture in which fruits and vegetables are grown

Fruits and vegetables

Green Revolution

• It was launched in the year 1966 and was the brainchild of Norman Borlaug, though in India, it was made successful by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. The term ‘Green Revolution’ was coined by Dr. William Gide. • The achievements of Green Revolution were rise in cereal production especially wheat

and rice, change in cropping pattern in favour of wheat, and increase in employ­ ment opportunities. • The Green Revolution demanded highyielding seeds, increasing irrigation pes­ ticides in fertilizer. • A National Commission on Farmers was appointed in 2004, under the Chairmanship

Indian Economy

of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan, which inter alia suggested an Agricultural Renewal Action Plan (ARAP).

Second Green Revolution

• The call for Second Green Revolution was given by the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh at the 93rd Science Conference in 2006.

Evergreen Revolution

• Concept given by renowned agricultural scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan. • The cause of the evergreen revolution is ‘Sustainability’. • India is the largest milk producing country in the world. • Speedy increase in the field of milk production is called White Revolution. • To increase the pace of White Revolution, Operation Flood was started. • In milk production of the country the share of buffalo, cow and goat is 50%, 46%, respectively. • The Father of Operation Flood was Dr. Verghese Kurien. • The Operation Flood was the largest integrated dairy development Programme of the world. It was started by National Dairy Development Board in 1970. • India is the fourth largest producer of natural rubber. • India is the second largest consumer of natural rubber. Kerala accounts for 9/10th of total rubber production in India. • The increase in oil seeds production was due to “Yellow Revolution”. • The progress in increase of fish production was called “Blue Revolution”. • Assam is the biggest tea producer in the country. • India ranks sixth in world coffee prod­ uction and contributes only 4% of world coffee production. • Cuba is known as the Sugar Bowl of the world. • India holds first position in the world in the production of sugar cane and sugar. • India consumes coffee comprising both Arabica (32%) and Robustra (68%) coffee.

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• India is the largest producer and consumer of black tea in the world. • India holds second position in the world for the production of sugar cane and sugar. • India is third in egg production. • Agricultural production can be divided into two parts–Food grains and Non-food grains, in which the share of food grains is two-third and non-food grains is one‑third. • The Tenth Plan was the first plan which did not fix targets of crop production. • Green Revolution did not cover barley, ragi and minor-millets. • The Green Revolution was confined only to High Yielding Varieties (HYV) mainly rice, wheat, maize and jowar. • National Agriculture Insurance Scheme was implemented in Oct. 1999.

Food Security in India

• Food security implies access by all people at all times to sufficient quantities of food to lead an active and healthy life.

Public Distribution System (PDS)

• PDS was envisaged in 1967 to act as a price support programme for the consumer during the periods of food shortage of the 1960s. • PDS is the largest distribution network of its kind in the world.

Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)

Following the criticism of PDS, the gover­ nment in June 1997, replaced the PDS with TPDS. The system envisaged issuing special cards to BPL families and selling food grains to them at subsidised prices. • National Co-operative Development Cor­ poration (NCDC) was set up in 1963.

Agriculture Insurance Company of India Limited (AIC)

• AIC was incorporated under the Companies Act, 1956 on 20 December 2002 as a specialised insurer with the capital participation from GIC, four public sector General Insurance Companies and NABARD.

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Food Processing Industry

• India is the third largest producer of food in the world after China and the US. • Food processing industry is the fifth largest industry in India in terms of production, consumption, exports and expected growth.

Mega Food Park Scheme

• The Tenth Plan Scheme of Food Parks was renamed as the Mega Food Park Scheme (MFPS) in 2008.

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Land Reforms Programmes in India Include

Elimination of intermediaries. Tenancy reforms. Determination of ceiling of holdings per family. Distribution of surplus land among landless people. Consolidation of holdings (Chakbandi). The following measures were made effective for the betterment of farmers: i. Regulation of tax. ii. Security for the rights of farmers. iii. Right of land ownership for the farmers. Land ceiling determines the maximum land which can be held by a farmer. Chakbandi of land means to aggregate the divided and broken land. The land having area less than 1 hectare, is called marginal land holding, 1 to 4 hectare is called small land holding and the land within area more than 4 hectare, is called large land holding. Chakbandi was implemented first time in India in the year 1920 in Baroda. The most positive effect of Green Revolution was on wheat. There was 500% increase in crop production. Organised sources of agriculture finance are co-operative committees, co-operative banks, commercial banks, regional rural banks, the government, etc. Co-operative Credit Organisation started first time in 1904. Primary Co-operative Committees provide credit for short period. State Co-operative Agriculture and Rural Development Banks provide credit for long period.

• Land Development Bank was established in the year 1919 in the form of Land Mortgage Bank. • National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is the apex institution of Rural Credit. It was established on 12 July 1982 by the merger of Agriculture Credit Department and reconstruction of Agriculture and Development Corporation of the Reserve Bank of India. Its establishment is based on the recommendations of Shivraman Committee. • Food stocks are maintained by the Central Government for three purposes: i. Maintaining prescribed buffer stock norms for food security, ii. Monthly supply through Public Dis­ tribution System (PDS), iii. Market intervention to stabilise open market prices. • Major crops of India: (a) Kharif Crops: Sown in July and harvested in October. They include rice, jowar, bajra, maize, cotton, sugarcane, soyabean and groundnut. (b) Rabi Crops: Sown in October and harvested in March/April. They include wheat, barley, gram, tuar, rapeseed and mustard. (c) Zayad Crops: Sown during March to June. It includes watermelons, vegetables, moong, etc.

National Income • Comparison between National Income and National Wealth: The national wealth is the measurement of present assets available on a given time, while the national income is the measurement of the production power of economic system in a given time period. • The figures of National income are based on the financial year (i.e. from 1 April to 31 March). • The base of one year is taken for calculating national income, as all the seasons come in a year.

Indian Economy

National Income Aggregates

1. Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It is the total money value of all final goods and services produced within the geographical boundaries of the country during a given period of time. GDP = C + G + I  C = Consumption expenditure G = Government expenditure I = Investment expenditure GDP at Market Price (GDP) • It refers to the total value of all the goods and services at market price produced during a year within the geographical boundaries of the country. • M a r k e t p r i c e r e f e r s t o t h e a c t u a l transacted price and G.S.T. etc. It excludes Government subsidies. GDP at Factor Cost (GDPfc) • GDP can be calculated at factor cost. This measure more accurately reveals the income paid to factors of production. The factor cost means the total cost of all factors of production consumed or used in producing a good or service. The difference between market price and cost price is of the indirect taxes. Nominal GDP and Real GDP Nominal GDP is evaluated at current market prices. Therefore, nominal GDP will include all of the change in market prices that have occurred during the current year due to inflation or deflation. Real GDP is better measurement of GDP. Since it reflects the increase in quantity of goods and services by adjusting for any increase in prices. Real GDP is generally measured by using base year prices of goods and services. 2. Gross National Product (GNP): GNP refers to the money value of total output of production of final goods and services produced by the nationals of a country during a given period of time, generally a year. 3. Net National Product (NNP): NNP is obtained by subtracting depreciation value (i.e. capital stock consumption) from GNP.

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4. Personal Income (PI): It is that income, which is actually obtained by the individual or nationals. 5. Personal Disposable Income (PDI): When personal direct taxes are subtracted from personal income, the obtained value is called personal disposable income. 6. National Income (NI): When NNP is calculated at factor cost (FC) it is called National Income. The measure is calculated by deducting indirect taxes and adding subsidies in NNP at Market Price (MP). ƒƒ In India, Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is the weighted average of price of 676 items with the base year 2011-12.

Methods of Measuring National Income

1. Product Method In this mehod, net value of final goods and services produced in a country during a year is obtained, which is called total final product. This represents gross domestic product. Net income earned in foreign boundries by nationals is added and depreciation is subtracted from G.D.P. 2. Income Method In this method a total of net income earned by working people in different sectors and commerical enterprises is obtained. Incomes of both cafegories of people paying taxes and not paying taxes are added to obtain national income. 3. Consumption Method It is also called expenditure method. Income is either spent on consumption or saved. Hence, national income is the addition of total consumption and total savings. • In India, a combination of production method and income method is used for estimating national income.

Estimates of National Income in India

• In 1868, the first attempt was made by Dadabhai Naoroji in his book ‘Poverty and Un-British Rule in India’. • The first scientific attempt to measure national income in India was made by Professor V.K.R.V. Rao in 1931‑32.

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• National income committee: In 1949, National Income Committee under the Chair­ manship of Professor P.C. Mahalanobis was constituted. • National Statistical Commission (NSO) was get up on 1 June 2005.

CSO and NSSO

• In 1949, Central Statistical Organisation (CSO) was constituted to publish national income data. • The CSO released the new series of national accounts with base year 2011-2012 instead of the base year 2004-05. • NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation) was set up in 1950.

Economic Planning • The concept of Economic Planning in India, is derived from Russia (the then USSR). • ‘Planning’ in India derives its objectives and social premises from the Directive Principles of State Policy enshrined in the Constitution. • In the year 1934, the proposal relating to economic planning came for the first time in the book of Vishveshwaraiya titled Planned Economy for India. Thereafter in 1938, the All India Congress Committee demanded for the same. In 1944, efforts were made by eight industrialists under “Bombay Plan”. • National Planning Committee was set-up under the Chairmanship of Jawaharlal Nehru in 1938. • Thereafter, in the same year, ‘Gandhian Plan’ by Mr. Mannarayan, in April 1944 the ‘People’s Plan’ by labour leader M.N. Roy and in January 30, 1950 the ‘Sarvodaya Plan’ by Mr. Jai Prakash Narayan were presented. • The Planning Commission was constituted in India in 1950 as a non-constitutional and advisory corporation.

First Five-Year Plan (1951-56)

• First Five-year Plan was based on the ‘Herrod-Domar Model’. • Agriculture was on top priority in this plan. • This plan was successful and achieved the growth rate of 3.6%, which was more than its aim.

Second Five-Year Plan (1956‑61)

• T h i s p l a n w a s b a s e d o n t h e P . C . Mahalanobis Model. • In this plan, industries and minerals were on top priority and 20.1% of total outlay was allocated for this sector. • This plan was also successful and it achieved 4.1% rate of growth. • Various important large industries like Steel Plant at Durgapur, Bhilai and Rourkela were established during this plan.

Third Five-Year Plan (1961-66)

• This plan is also called “Gadgil Yojana.” • This plan could not achieve its aim of 5.6% growth rate. • The main reason of failure of this plan was Indo-China war, Indo-Pakistan war and unprecedented drought.

Plan Holiday (From 1966-67 to 1968‑69)

• The main reason of Plan holiday was Indo-Pakistan war, lack of resources and increase in price-level. Three Annual Plans were enacted.

Fourth Five-Year Plan (1969‑74)

• The two main objectives of this plan were ‘growth with stability’ and ‘progressive achievement of self‑reliance’. • In this plan, ‘Establishment of socialist order’ was specially aimed. • ‘Growth with justice’ and ‘Garibi Hatao’ (removal of poverty) were the main objectives of this plan. • This plan failed to achieve its aim.

Fifth Five-Year Plan (1974-79)

• The Fifth Plan draft as originally drawn up was part of a long-term Perspective Plan covering a period of 10 years from 1974-75 to 1985-86. • The two main objectives of this plan were poverty eradication and attainment of self-reliance. • Top priority was given to agriculture, next came industry and mines. • This plan, which was started by the then ruling Janata Government was later terminated in the year 1978.

Indian Economy

Rolling Plan (1978-80)

• The rolling plan started with an annual plan for 1978-79 and as a continuation of the terminated Fifth Plan.

Sixth Five-year Plan (1980-85)

• The Janata Government originally introduced this plan for the period 1978-83, but later a new Sixth Plan replaced it, for the period 1980-85. • The basic objective of the Sixth Plan was removal of poverty. • The target growth rate, in this plan, was fixed at 5.2% and it achieved successfully 5.7% of annual rate of growth. • In this plan, important programmes like Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) were started.

Seventh Five-year Plan (1985-90)

• Main aim of the plan was to increase production in all sectors and to generate opportunities for employment. • In this plan, for the first time private sector was given priority in comparison to public sector. • In this plan, employment generating programmes like Jawahar Rozgar Yojana were started.

Annual Plans

The new government, which assumed power at the Centre in June 1991, decided that the Eighth Five-year Plan would commence on April 1, 1992 and that 1990-91 and 1991-92 should be treated as separate Annual Plans.

Eighth Five-year Plan (1992 AD-1997 AD)

• In this plan, the utmost priority was given to “Development of Human Resources”, i.e. employment education and public health. In addition to this, the important aim made in this plan was to strengthen the basic infrastructure by the end of the decade. • This plan was successful and got 6.8% annual rate of growth, which was more than its target of 5.6%.

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• During this period, Pradhanmantri Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) was started in the year 1993.

Ninth Five-year Plan (1997 AD-2002 AD)

• The Planning Commission released the draft Ninth Plan document on March 1, 1998. The focus of the plan is “Growth with Social justice and Equity”. • The recession in international economy was held responsible for the failure of Ninth Plan.

Tenth Five-Year Plan (2002-07)

• Though the 10th Plan could not achieve its target of 8% growth of GDP, yet has taken the economy to a higher trajectory of growth rate at 7.6% as against 5.5% in the 9th Plan.

Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2007‑12)

• Emphasis on social sector and delivery of service therein. • Reduction of gender inequality. • Rapid and inclusive growth. • Environment sustainability. • Increase agriculture growth to 4%.

Twelfth Five-Year Plan (2012‑2017) Vision of 12th Five-year Plan (2012-17) • Twelfth Five Year Plan focusses on Growth. Growth which is: 1. Faster 2. Inclusive 3. Sustainable • The 12th Five-Year Plan of the Government of India has decided for the growth rate at 8.2% but the National Development Council (NDC) on 27 December, 2012 approved 8% growth rate for 12th five-year plan. • The final growth target has been set at 8% by the endorsement of plan at the National Development Council meeting held in New Delhi. • The government intends to reduce poverty by 10 per cent during the 12th Five-year Plan.

Economic Growth

• Real GDP growth at 8%. • Agriculture growth at 4%. • Manufacturing growth at 10%.

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• Every state must attain higher growth rate than the rate achieved during 11th plan. • Poverty and employment • Poverty rate to be reduced by 10% than the rate at the end of 11th plan. • 5 crore new work opportunities and skill certifications in non-farm sector.

Education

• Mean years of schooling to increase to 7 years. • 20 lakh seats for each age bracket in higher education. • End gender gap and social gap in school enrollment.

Health

• Reduce: IMR to 25; MMR to 1. Increase Child Sex Ratio to 950. • Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1. • Reduce undernutrition of children in age group 0-3 to half of NFHS-3 levels.

Infrastructure

• Investment in infrastructure at 9% of GDP. • Gross Irrigated Area: 103 million hectare (from 90 million hectare). • Electricity to all villages; Reduce AT&C losses by 20%. • Connect Villages with All Weather Roads. • National and State highways to a minimum of 2-lane standard. • Complete Eastern and Western Dedicated Freight Corridors. • Rural Tele-Density to 70%. • 40 litres per capita per day drinking water to 50% of rural population; Nirmal Gram Status to 50% of all Gram Panchayats.

Environment and Sustainability

• Increase green cover by 1 million hectares every year. • 30,000 MW renewable energy during Five-year Period. • Emission intensity of GDP to be reduced to 20-25% of 2005 levels by 2020.

Service Delivery

• Banking services to 90% of Indian households. • Subsidies and welfare-related payment to be routed through Aadhar-based Direct Cash Transfer Scheme.

Types of Planning Imperative Planning

In this type of planning, the Central Planning authority decides upon every aspect of the economy, and the targets set, and the processes delineated to achieve them are to be strictly followed. This type of planning is mainly practised in the socialist economies.

Indicative Planning

In this type of planning, the State sets broad parameters and goals for the economy. It was adopted in our country since the 8th Fiveyear Plan, as practised in many developed countries.

Perspective Planning

It’s type of planning for a long period of time, usually 15-20 years.

Rolling Plan

Under the scheme of rolling plans, there are three different steps: First, a plan for the current year which includes the annual budget; Second, a plan for a fixed number of years, say three, four or five. It is revised every year as per the requirements of the economy. Third, a perspective plan for 10, 15 or 20 years.

Core Plan

As per this concept, the Planning Commission asks the States to submit their projected revenue estimates. On the basis of these estimates, Planning Commission determines the expenditure heads for State Annual Plans. This helps in keeping the plan target to realistic limits and prevents diversion of funds from the priority items to the nonplan account. The concept of ‘Core Plan’ has emerged recently. 1. Planning by Direction • It is an integral part of a socialist society and entails absence of laissez faire. 2. Planning by Inducement • It is a democratic planning and planning is through manipulating the market.

Indian Economy

3. Financial Planning • It is a technique of planning, in which resources are allocated in terms of money. 4. Physical Planning • It refers to the allocation of resources in terms of men, material and machinery. 5. Perspective Planning • It refers to long-term planning in which longrange targets are set in advance for a period of 15, 20 or 25 years. Sixth Plan (1978-83) by Janata Government was such plan.

Niti Aayog • NITI Aayog or National Institution for Transforming India Aayog is the replacement of Planning Commission of India. • National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog has been created in accordance to the announcement made by the Prime Minister, Narendra Modi on 15 August, 2014.

Composition of NITI Aayog

• Chairperson: Prime Minister. • Vice Chairperson: Rajiv Kumar. • Governing Council: CM’s (States) and Lieutenant Governors (Union Territories) • Regional Councils: Formed on needbasis, incorporates CMs and Lieutenant Governors of the region. • Members: Economist Bibek Debroy and Former DRDO Chief V.K. Saraswat. • Part-time Members: Maximum 2, Rotational, from relevant institutions. • Ex-officio Members: Rajnath Singh, Arun Jaitley, Suresh Prabhu and Radha Mohan Singh. • Special Invitees: Experts, specialists, practitioners with domain knowledge. • CEO: Mr. Amitabh Kant • Secretariat: If necessary.

Functions

• An administration paradigm in which the Government is an ‘enabler’ rather than a ‘provider of the first and last resort’. • Progress from ‘food security’ to focus on a mix of agricultural production, as well as actual returns that farmers get from their produce.

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• Ensure that India is an active player in the debates and deliberations on the global commons. • Ensure that the economically vibrant middle-class remains engaged, and its potential is fully realised. • Leverage India’s pool of entrepreneurial, scientific and intellectual human capital. • Incorporate the significant geo-economic and geo-political strength of the Nonresident Indian Community. • Use urbanisation as an opportunity to create a wholesome and secure habitat through the use of modern technology. • Use technology to reduce opacity and potential for misadventures in governance.

Objectives

• To foster cooperative federalism through structured support initiatives and mecha­ nisms with the States on a continuous basis, recognising that strong States make a strong nation. • To develop mechanisms to formulate credible plans at the village level and aggregate these progressively at higher levels of government. • To ensure, on areas that are specifically referred to it, that the interests of national security are incorporated in economic strategy and policy. • To pay special attention to the sections of our society that may be at risk of not benefitting adequately from economic progress. • To design strategic and long-term policy and programme frameworks and initiatives, and monitor their progress and their efficacy. The lessons learnt through monitoring and feedback will be used for making innovative improvements, including necessary midcourse corrections. • To provide advice and encourage partner­ ships between key stakeholders and national and international like-minded Think Tanks, as well as educational and policy research institutions.

National Development Council

• National Development Council was con­ stituted on 6 August 1952.

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• The Prime Minister is the ex-officio Chairman and the Secretary of Planning Commission is the ex-officio Secretary of this council. • Chief Ministers of all the states and the members of Planning Commission are the members of National Development Council (NDC) is an extra-constitutional body. Functions (a) It aims to make co-operative environment for economic planning between States and the Planning Commission. (b) It evaluates the management of plans from time to time. (c) It analyses the policies affecting develop­ ment. (d) It gives suggestions to achieve the fixed aim in the plans. (e) It gives final approval to the Five Year Plans.

Economic Growth

• Economic growth has been defined as “an increase in real terms of the output of goods and services that is sustained over a long period of time, measured in terms of value added. Economic growth is a dynamic concept and refers to continuous increase in output.

Growth and development

• The term economic growth refers over time in country’s real output of goods and services i.e. product per capita, the term economic development in contrast is more comprehensive. It implies progressive changes in the socio-economic structure. Difference between economic growth and development Economic Growth

Economic Development

It indicates quantitative improvement in the economic progress of a country.

It indicates qualitative improvement in the economic progress of country.

It shows growth in national income and per capita income over time.

It shows not only a sustained increase in national and per capita income but also qualitative changes which leads to higher standard of living.

Economic Growth

Economic Development

A country may grow but it may not develop.

Economic development includes the nation of economic growth.

Models of Economic Development Nehru-Mahalanobis Model • Nehru-Mahalanobis model of development emerged as the driving force of the strategy of development adopted at the time of formulations of the Second Five-year Plan and has continued right up to the eighties. • Growth with social justice was the goal of Nehru-Mahalanobis model. • In the Nehru-Mahalanobis model, the State controlled the commanding heights of the economy through the public sector. The Gandhian Model of Growth • ‘Gandhian Plan’ was brought out by Acharya S.N. Agarwala in 1944 and was re-affirmed in 1948, formed the basis of Gandhian model of growth. • The basic objective of this model is to raise the material as well as the cultural level of the Indian masses so as to provide a basic standard of life. • The Gandhian model’s primary aim is the attainment of maximum self-sufficiency in village communities. LPG Model of Development • The LPG Model of Development was introduced in 1991 by the then Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh. • LPG Model of Development emphasises a bigger role for the private sector. • It envisages a much larger quantum of foreign direct investment to supplement our growth process. • It aims at a strategy of export led growth as against import substitution practised earlier. PURA Model of Development • The Union Cabinet on 20 January, 2004 accorded in principle approval for the execution of PURA within the gross budgetary support for bridging the ruralurban divide and achieving balanced socioeconomic development. • Though Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, ever since he became the President of India has been

Indian Economy

advocating his Vision 2020, and, to eradicate poverty from India, he has been emphasising the adoption of PURA (Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas); however, it was Mahatma Gandhi who underlined the exploitation of rural society by its urban counterpart. • The objective of PURA is to propel economic development without population transfers. • The PURA model, however, attempts reconciliation between employment and GDP growth objectives.

Unemployment • Unemployment can be defined as a situation when persons able and willing to work are seeking jobs at the prevailing wage level but they are unable to get the same. • In India, unemployment is structural in nature due to lack of productive capacity and resources. • In India, a person working eight hours a day for 273 days of the year is regarded as employed on a standard person year basis. • Bhagawati Committee on unemployment estimates (1973), set up by the Planning Commission, gave three estimates of unemployment.

Types of Unemployment Cyclical Unemployment • It is the result of depression in an economy. Frictional Unemployment • This kind of unemployment is temporary. It is the result of a situation when new industries drive out old ones and workers change over to better jobs. Open Unemployment • It refers to those who have no work to do even though they are able and willing to do work. Classical Unemployment • It is a component of overall unemployment caused by too high wage expectation. Chronic Unemployment • When unemployment tends to be a longterm feature of a country, it is called chronic unemployment.

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Structural Unemployment • This type of unemployment is associated with economic structure of the country, i.e. productive capacity is inadequate to create a sufficient number of jobs. i. Seasonal unemployment: This occurs at a certain period of the time when workload is comparatively less, and, hence, people are rendered jobless. It also means the unemployment of the farmers and farm labourers during noncrop seasons. ii. Educated unemployment: This is mainly found in urban areas. Those educated persons who are unable to get work come under this category. iii. Underemployment (Disguised unem­ ployment): It results when a person contributes to production less than what he or she is capable of. iv. Compulsory unemployment: It means the labour power which is ready to work on the current rate but does not get the work. • The Planning Commission collects data of unemployment on the basis of ‘Lakadawala Formula’ effective from 11 March 1997 and prior to this the process to collect data was on the basis of surveys of National Sample Survey Organisation (NASO). • In India, the data relating to unemployment are collected by National Sample Survey Organisation (NASO). This Organisation has the following concepts with regard to unemployment: 1. General status of unemployment: In this category, generally, those unemployed for more than one year are included. 2. Weekly-unemployment: The persons who have not got work for even one hour in a week are included in this category. 3. Daily unemployment: It is considered the best concept of unemployment. • The main reasons for unemployment in India are slow economic development, population explosion outdated technique, improper education system and limited effect of government planning.

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Bharat Nirman Yojana The Union Government launched a new comprehensive scheme, named ‘Bharat Nirman Yojana’ on December 16, 2005. The six major sectors and their targets for next four years are: • Irrigation • Roads • Housing • Water supply • Electrification • Rural Communication

2. 3.

4.

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA)

• The National Rural Employment Guarantee Bill was passed by Parliament on September 7, 2005. It secured Presidential assent later in 2005 itself and became an Act. • The Act provides for at least 100 days of employment to one able bodied person in every rural household every year. ƒƒ Employment to be given within 15 days of application for work. ƒƒ If employment is not provided within 15 days, daily unemployment allowance in cash has to be paid. ƒƒ At least one-third beneficiaries have to be women. ƒƒ PRIs have a principal role in planning and implementation. • The wages admissible are around ` 120 per day. • The Act (NREGA) came into force from Feb. 2, 2006.

)) Note: The Govt. of India, October 2, 2009

renamed the NREGA as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MNREGA).

Employment Guarantee Act, 2005

The main features of the Act are: 1. Every household in rural India will have a right to at least 100 days of guaranteed employment every year for at least one adult member. The wages shall be paid

5. 6. 7.

within seven days of the week during which work was done. Work should be provided within 15 days of demanding it, and the work should be located within five kilometer distance. If work is not provided to anybody within the given time, he/she will be paid a daily unemployment allowance, which will be at least one-third of the minimum wages. Workers employed on public works will be entitled to medical treatment and hospitalization in case of injury at work, along with a daily allowance of not less than half of the statutory minimum wage. In case of death or disability of a worker, an ex-gratia payment shall be made to his legal heirs as per provision of the Workmen Compensation Act. 5% of wages may be deducted as contribution to welfare schemes. The District Collector/Chief Executive Officer will be responsible for the programme at the district level. The Gram Sabha will monitor the work of the Gram Panchayat by way of social audit.

Some Important Development and Employment Programmes Jawahar Rozgar Yojana

• During the Seventh Five-year Plan, a scheme called ‘Jawahar Rozgar Yojana’ was introduced from April 1989 to solve the problem of unemployment in the rural sector. The former ongoing two main rural employment programmes National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) and Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) were merged with Jawahar Rozgar Yojana. • The total expenditure on Jawahar Rozgar Yojana was shared by the Centre and the State Government in the ratio of 80:20. • A sub-plan of Jawahar Rozgar Yojana–‘Indira Awas Yojana’ was made an independent scheme in itself on January 1, 1996.

Indian Economy

The Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS)

It was introduced on October 2, 1993, in selective rural areas. The aim of this scheme is to provide work in the form of unskilled physical labour to all the employment seeking men and women (of ages between 18 years to 60 years) in rural area. Since January 1, 1996, the Integrated Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (IJRY) has been merged with Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS).

The Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)

It was started on. This programme was launched in the whole country on October 2, 1980. The basic aim of IRDP was to provide assistance to rural poor families living below the poverty line. • Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA) and Training Rural Youth for Self-Employment (TRYSEM) were the sub-plans of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). • The objective of TRYSEM was to provide training to those rural youth (ages 18-35 years) who belong to the families living below the poverty line. This programme was started on August 15, 1979. Development of Women and Children in Rural Area Programme (DWCRA) was started in September 1982.

Indira Awas Yojana (IAY, launched in 1985)

• IAY addresses housing shortage as an important component of poverty alleviation in rural India. • The cost is shared by the Centre and State in the ratio of 75:25.

Rajiv Gandhi Gramin Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY launched in 2005)

• Aims at providing electricity in all villages and habitations and access to electricity to all rural households. • Connections to BPL families are given free of cost. 90% cost of the scheme is released as grant, where 10% as loan.

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Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM launched on 3rd December, 2005)

• (JNNURM) is to encourage reforms and fast track-planned development of identified cities.

Health-oriented Programmes

• National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) (set up in 12 April 2005). • Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) a core component of NRHM (set up in April 2005). • Pradhanmantri Swasthya Suraksha Yojana (PMSSY) (set up in 2010).

Swarn Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana

• The Urban Self-employment Programme and Urban Wage-employment Programmes of the Swaran Jayanti Shahari Yojana, which substituted (in December 1997) various programmes operated earlier for poverty alleviation. • SJSRY is funded on 75:25 basis between the Centre and the States.

Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

The government has introduced Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana on April 1, 1999 and the previous six ongoing schemes have been merged with this scheme, they are– 1. IRDP 2. TRYSEM 3. DWCRA 4. MWS 5. SITRA 6. Ganga Kalyan Yojana. The scheme is funded on 75:25 basis by the Centre and States.

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP)

RLEGP began on August 15, 1993 and National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) on October 2, 1980. During Seventh Five-year Plan, these programmes were merged with Jawahar Rozgar Yojana.

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• Council for Advancement of Peoples Action and Rural Technology (CAPART) is an independent section of the Rural Development Department of the Government of India, which was established on September 1986. • The Nehru Rozgar Yojana began on October 1989 which was revved in March 1990. Under this Yojana, following schemes were included: (i) Scheme of Urban Micro Enterprises–SUME; (ii) Scheme of Urban Wage Employment–SUWE; (iii) Scheme of Housing and Shelter Upgradation–SHASU. • The Prime Minister’s Rozgar Yojana (PMRY) was started on October 2, 1993 for the educated unemployed youth and initially it was in operation in the urban areas. Since April 1, 1994, it was extended to the whole country.

Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA; Launched in 2001)

• The main objective of this programme was to provide educational facility to all children of 6-14 age-group in the state, to complete the primary education by 2007 and upper primary education by 2010 of all enrolled children and to ensure universal stay of all children up to the year 2010.

National Rural Health Mission (NRHM, launched in 2005)

• The National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) aims to provide accessible, affordable and accountable quality health services to the rural poor.

Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS, launched in 1975)

• The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDs) Scheme aims at enhancing the health, nutrition and learning opportunities of infants, young children (0-6 years) and their mother.

Mid-Day Meal (MDM, Launched in 1995)

• Under the scheme, hot cooked meal of a minimum 300 calories and 8-12 gms of protein are being provided to children studying in primary schools/Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS)/Alternative and Innovative Education (AIE) centres.

National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP, Launched in 2009)

• This programme’s instrument is Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme (ARWSP) under implementation since 1972-93. • The ARWSP has been modified as National Rural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP) in 2009‑10.

Total Sanitation Programme (TSP)

• TSP was started in the state in the year 2000.

National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)

• The National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP) envisages the pension schemes, National Family Benefit Scheme and scholarship to up to two children of BPL families studying in classes 9th to 12th.

List of Government Schemes Scheme Atal Pension Yojana

Ministry MoF

Date of Launch May 9, 2015

Bachat Lamp Yojna

MoP

2009

Electrification

Central Government Health Scheme

MoHFW

1954

Health

2003

Social Justice

Deendayal Disabled MoSJE Rehabilitation Scheme

Sector Pension

Provisions Social Sector Scheme pertaining to Pension Sector. Reduce the cost of compact fluorescent lamps. Comprehensive medical care facilities to Central Government employees and their family members. Create an enabling environment to ensure equal opportunities, equity, social justice and empowerment of persons with disabilities.

Indian Economy Scheme Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana

Ministry MoP

Date of Launch 2015

Digital India Programme

MoC&IT

July 1, 2015

Gramin Bhandaran Yojana

MoA

March 31, 2007

Pradhanmantri Gramin Awaas Yojna

MoRD

1985

Indira Gandhi Matritva Sahyog Yojana Integrated Child Development Services

MoWCD

2010

MoWCD

October 2, 1975

Integrated Rural Development Programme

MoRD

1978

Janani Suraksha Yojana

MoHFW

2005

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

MoUD

December 3, 2005

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya

MoHRD

July 2004

INSPIRE Programme

Department of Science and Technology (India) MoST 1999

Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana

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Sector Rural Power Supply

Provisions It is a Government of India program aimed at providing 24x7 uninterrupted power supply to all homes in Rural India. Digitally Aims to ensure that government Empowered services are available to citizens Nation electronically and people get benefited from the latest information and communication technology. Agriculture Creation of scientific storage capacity with allied facilities in rural areas to meet the requirements of farmers for storing farm produce, processed farm produce and agricultural inputs. Improve their marketability through promotion of grading, standardization and quality control of agricultural produce. Housing, Rural Provides financial assistance to rural poor for constructing their houses themselves. Mother Care A cash incentive of ` 4000 to women (19 years and above) for the first two live births. Child Tackle malnutrition and health Development problems in children below 6 years of age and their mothers. Rural Self-employment program to raise the Development income-generation capacity of target groups among the poor and the scheme has been merged with another scheme named Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) since 01.04.1999. Mother Care One-time cash incentive to pregnant women for institutional/home-births through skilled assistance. Urban A programme meant to improve the Development quality of life and infrastructure in the cities. To be replaced by Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation. Education Educational facilities (residential schools) for girls belonging to SC, ST, OBC, minority communities and families below the poverty line (BPL) in educationally backward blocks. Scholarships for top science students, Fellowships for pursuing PhD, Research Grants to researchers. Scholarship program to encourage students to take up research careers in the areas of basic sciences, engineering and medicine.

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Scheme Livestock Insurance Scheme (India)

Ministry MoA

Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

MoRD

Date of Launch

February 6, 2006

Members of MoSPI Parliament Local Area Development Scheme

December 23, 1993

Midday Meal Scheme

MoHRD

Namami Gange Programme

MoWR

August 15, 1995 March 1995

National Literacy Mission Programme National Pension Scheme National Scheme on Welfare of Fishermen

MoHRD

May 5, 1988

MoHRD

January 1, 2004

National Service Scheme National Social Assistance Scheme

MoYAS

Pooled Finance Development Fund Scheme Pradhan Mantri Adarsh Gram Yojana Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana Pradhan Mantri Jeevan Jyoti Bima Yojana Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana

MoA

Sector Education

Provisions Insurance to cattle and attaining qualitative improvement in livestock and their products. Rural Wage Legal guarantee for one hundred days Employment of employment in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage of ` 120 per day in 2009 prices. Each MP has the choice to suggest to the District Collector for, works to the tune of Rs.5 Crores per annum to be taken up in his/her constituency. The Rajya Sabha Member of Parliament can recommend works in one or more districts in the State from where he/ she has been elected. Health, Lunch (free of cost) to school-children Education on all working days. Clean & Protect Integrates the efforts to clean Ganga and protect the River Ganga in a comprehensive manner. Education Make 80 million adults in the age group of 15-35 literate Pension Contribution based pension system. Agriculture

MoRD

August 15, 1995

Pension

MoRD

Model Village

MoF

July 23, 2010 May 9, 2015

MoF

May 9, 2015

Insurance

MoSDPE

April 2016

Skill Development Initiative Scheme

Insurance

Financial assistance to fishers for construction of house, community hall for recreation and common working place and installation of tube wells for drinking water. Personality development through social (or community) service. Public assistance to its citizens in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and in other cases of undeserved want.

Integrated development of Scheduled Caste-majority villages in four states. Accidental Insurance with a premium of ` 12 per year. Life insurance of ` 2 lakh with a premium of ` 330 per year. To provide encouragement to youth for development of employable skills by providing monetary rewards by recognition of Prior Learning or by Undergoing training at affiliated centres.

Indian Economy Scheme Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana

Ministry MoF

Pradhan Mantri Gram MoRD Sadak Yojana Rajiv Awas Yojana MhUPA

Rajiv Gandhi Grameen MoP Vidyutikaran Yojana

Rashtriya Krishi Vikas MoA Yojana Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana

MoHFW

RNTCP Saksham or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Boys

MoHFW MoWCD

Sabal or Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescent Girls

MoWCD

Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana

MoRD

Skill India Programme MoSDE (National Skill Development Mission)

Date of Launch August 28, 2014

Sector Financial Inclusion

299

Provisions National Mission for Financial Inclusion to ensure access to financial services, namely Banking Savings and Deposit Accounts, Remittance, Credit, Insurance, Pension in an affordable manner. December Rural Good all-weather road connectivity to 25, 2000 Development unconnected villages. 2013 Urban Housing It envisages a ‘Slum-free India’ with inclusive and equitable cities in which every citizen has access to basic civic infrastructure and social amenities and decent shelter. April 2005 Rural Programme for creation of Rural Electrification Electricity Infrastructure and Household Electrification for providing access to electricity to rural households. August 1, Agriculture Achieve 4% annual growth in 2007 agriculture through development of agriculture and its allied sectors during the XI Plan period. April 1, 2008 Insurance Health insurance to poor (BPL), Domestic workers, MGNREGA workers, Rikshaw-pullers, Building and other construction workers, and many other categories as may be identified by the respective states. 1997 Health Tuberculosis control initiative. 2014 Skill Aims at all-round development of Development Adolescent Boys and make them selfreliant, gender-sensitive and aware citizens, when they grow up. It covers all adolescent boys (both school-going and out-of-school) in the age-group of 11 to 18 years subdivided into two categories, viz. 11-14 and 14-18 years. In 2014-15, an allocation of ` 25 crore is made for the scheme. 2011 Skill Empowering adolescent girls (Age) Development of 11-18 years with focus on out-ofschool girls by improvement in their nutritional and health status and upgrading various skills like home skills, life skills and vocational skills. Merged Nutrition Programme for Adolescent Girls (NPAG) and Kishori Shakti Yojana (KSY). September Rural SelfProviding additional wage employment 25, 2001 employment and food security, alongside creation of durable community assets in rural areas. July 15, Skill Seeks to provide the institutional 2015 Development capacity to train a minimum 40 crore skilled people by 2022.

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General Knowledge  2020 Date of Launch

Scheme

Ministry

Swabhiman

MoF

February 15, Financial 2011 Inclusion

To make banking facility available to all citizens and to get 5 crore accounts opened by March 2012. Replaced by Pradhan Mantri Jan. Dhan Yojana.

Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana

MoRD

April 1, 1999 Rural Employment

Bring the assisted poor families above the poverty line by organising them into Self-Help Groups (SHGs) through the process of social mobilisation, their training and capacity-building and provision of income-generating assets through a mix of bank credit and government subsidy.

Swavalamban

MoF

September 26, 2010

Pension

Pension scheme to the workers in unorganised sector. Any citizen who is not part of any statutory pension scheme of the Government and contributes between ` 1,000/-and ` 12,000/-per annum, could join the scheme. The Central Government shall contribute ` 1,000 per annum, to such subscribers.

Udisha

MoWCD

Child Care

Training Program for ICDS workers.

Voluntary Disclosure of Income Scheme

National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM)

MoRD

Sector

Provisions

June 18, 1997

Opportunity to the income tax/ wealth tax defaulters to disclose their undisclosed income at the prevailing tax rates.

June 2011

This scheme will organise rural poor into Self-Help Group (SHG) groups and make them capable for selfemployment. The idea is to develop better livelihood options for the poor.

HRIDAY–Heritage MoUD City Development and Augmentation Yojana

Jan. 2015

Sukanya Samridhi Yojana (Girl Child Prosperity Scheme)

MoWCD

Jan. 2015

Smart Cities Mission

MoUD

June 25, 2015

Urban Develop- To enable better living and drive ment economic growth stressing on the need for people-centric urban planning and development.

Atal Mission for MoUD Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)

June 25, 2015

Urban Develop- To enable better living and drive ment economic growth stressing on the need for people-centric urban planning and development.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY)

June 25, 2015

Housing

MoUD

Urban Develop- The scheme seeks to preserve and ment rejuvenate the rich cultural heritage of the country. The scheme primarily ensures equitable share to a girl-child in resources and savings of a family in which she is generally discriminated as against a male child.

To enable better living and drive economic growth stressing on the need for people-centric urban planning and development.

Indian Economy Scheme Ministry National Child Labour Ministry of Projects (NCLP) Labour and Employment

National Career Service (India) (NCS) Antyodaya Anna Yojana

Date of Launch Sector Launched in 9 districts in 1987 and has been expanded in January 2005 to 250 districts in 21 different states of the country 20 July 2015 Employment

Ministry of Labour and Employment NDA govern- 25 December ment 2000

National Food Security Government 2007 for 5 Mission of India years

Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojna

MoP&NG

May 1, 2016

Jan Aushadhi

Government 15 July 2017 Health of India

Trade and Commerce • Indian Trade was extremely developed during ancient time. • After the British East India Company was established in 1600, the trade between Indian and Britain was in India’s favour till 1857. • During the later part of 18th century, after Industrial Revolution in Britain, there was heavy production of cheap items. To sell

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Provisions The objective of this project is to eliminate child labour in hazardous industries by 2010. Under this scheme, the target group is all children below 14 years of age who are working in occupations and processes listed in the Schedule to the Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 1986 or occupations and processes that are harmful to the health of the child. The objective of this project is to help job-seekers land up at the job they deserve Under the scheme, 1 crore of the poorest among the (Below Poverty Line) BPL families covered under the targeted public distribution system are identified. Issue of Ration Cards Following the recognition of Antyodaya families, unique quota cards to be recognised an ‘Antyodaya Ration Card’ must be given to the Antyodaya families by the chosen power. The scheme has been further expanded twice by additional 50 lakh BPL families each in June 2003 and in August 2004, thus covering 2 crore families under the AAY scheme. It launched in 2007 for 5 years to increase production and productivity of wheat, rice and pulses on a sustainable basis so as to ensure food security of the country. The aim is to bridge the yield gap in respect of these crops through dissemination of improved technologies and farm management practices. Launched to provide free LPG connections to women from below poverty line families Generic Medicine Campaign

those cheap items in world market, the tradition of colonisation began. • British companies established monopoly on the sale of cotton. As a result, the Indian weaver got costly raw material and thus Indian completely ruined. • First factory of cotton textile in India was established in 1818 at Ghughari near Kolkata, which failed.

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General Knowledge  2020

• The second factory of cotton textile was established by a businessman Kawas Ji Nana Bhai in Mumbai in 1853. • In 1885, first Jute factory was established in Rishara (West Bengal). • Jamsetji Tata established first steel factory in Jamshedpur in 1907.

New Economic Policy • The New Economic Policy was devised and implemented, for the first time in the year 1985 during the period of Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. • The second wave of new economic reforms came in the year 1991 during the period of P.V. Narasimha Rao Government. • The main reason to start new economic policy (1991) was Gulf War and problem of balance of payment in India. • The following four main steps were taken under the Fiscal Policy, 1991: i. To control public expenditure strictly. ii. To expand Tax Net. iii. To observe discipline in management of funds of Central and State Governments. iv. To curtail grants (subsidy). • Measures implemented under the Industrial Reforms Policy, 1991 were: i. Delicensing of industries except the list of 18 industries. ii. M.R.T.P. norms were relaxed for disinvestment. iii. The areas reserved for public sector were opened to private sector. • The objectives fixed for reforms in the Foreign Investment Policy, 1991 were: i. Direct foreign investment up to 50% was given automatic approval, in many industries. ii. Foreign companies, involved in export activities were allowed to invest up to 51% capital. iii. T h e g o v e r n m e n t g a v e a u t o m a t i c approval for Technology Agreement in the industries of high priorities. • The measures implemented to bring efficiency and market discipline under the Public Sector Policy, 1991 were as under:

i. Number of reserved industries decreased to eight. Presently, these are only four. ii. The work of rehabilitation of sick industries handed over to Board of Industrial Financial Reconstruction. iii. Industries were made powerful with the help of Memorandum of Understandings (MoU). iv. Voluntary Retirement Schemes started to cut down the size of work force.

Economic Reforms

• Macroeconomic crisis of the early 1990s necessitated economic reforms in India. The crisis had three aspects: i. Fiscal imbalance or increasing fiscal deficit. ii. Fragile Balance of Payment (BoP) sit­ uation. iii. Inflationary pressures in the economy. • Two distinct stands of reform measures were prescribed by the World Bank and the IMF. • These were: i. Macroeconomic Stabilisation Demand Management. ii. Structural Adjustments’ Supply-side Management. • Economic Reforms were introduced in 1991 in India. First Generation Reforms were aimed at stabilisation of India economy and were of macro level in nature. Second Generation Reforms aimed at structural changes and are micro level in nature. • Since economic reform, poverty has been declining from 36% in 1993 to 26% by the end of 10th Plan. • Disinvestment means to decrease the share of government in the industries. • In 1996, Disinvestment Commission was constituted to review, give suggestions and make regulations on the issue of disinvestment. • Shri G.V. Ramakrishna was the first Chairman of Disinvestment Commission. • In the year 1992, National Renewal Fund was constituted for rehabilitation of displaced labourers of sick industrial units affected due to industrial modernization, technological development, etc.

Indian Economy

• Inclusive development in India first emphasised in the Eleventh Plan Period (2007-12). • The essential elements of inclusive devel­opment are: i. poverty reduction and increase in quantity and quality of employment; ii. agricultural development; iii. reduction in regional disparities; iv. social sector development; and v. protecting the environment.

Human Development

• The Human Development Report (HDR) was published by the UNDP since 1990 captures the essence of human development. • The HDR was started by Pakistani economist Mahbub-ul-Haq and Amartya Sen.

Poverty

• Planning Commission is the authority, which publishes the poverty estimates based on various rounds of National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) on monthly per capita consumption expenditure. • In India, the poverty line is defined on the basis of calorie intake. According to this, 2100 calories a day has been fixed for urban areas and 2400 calories in rural areas. • Since, NSSO 55th Round (1999), Planning Commission gives two poverty estimates based on Mixed Recall Period (MRP) and Universal Recall Period (URP). • Mixed Recall Period, gives consumer expenditure data for five non-food items, namely clothing, footwear, durable goods, education and institutional medical expenses for 365 days and consumption data for remaining items are collected for 30 days’ period. • In Universal Recall Period, consumption data for all items are collected for a 30 days’ recall period.

Indian financial system • There are two parts of Indian Financial System–first demand side and second supply side.

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• The Indian money market is the market in which short-term funds are borrowed and lent. The capital market in India, on the other hand, is the market for medium-term and long-term funds. • The financial system is, commonly, classified into: (a) Industrial finance, (b) Agricultural finance, (c) Development finance and (d) Government finance. • Devaluation: It means lowering the official value of the local money in terms of foreign currency or gold. • Balance of Payments (BoP) is the difference between the value of goods exported and the value of goods imported per annum. Services not included in BoP. • BoP is divided in current account and capital account. • 1994-95, Indian Rupee was made fully convertible on current account. • Fiscal policy is the policy relating to public revenue and public expenditure and allied matters. • Usually, the Indian money market is classified into organised sector and the unorganised sector. • The highest financial institution in organized sector is Reserve Bank of India and in addition to this bank of public sector banks of private sector, foreign banks and other financial institutions are also part of organized sector. • The Reserve Bank of India is the supreme monetary and banking authority in the country and has the responsibility to control the banking system in the country. It keeps the reserves of all commercial banks and hence is known as the ‘Reserve Bank’. Its financial year is 1 July to 30 June.

The Indian Capital Market • The capital market in India includes: (i) Government Securities (Gilt-edged market); (ii) Industrial Securities Market; (iii) Development financial institutions like IFCI, IDBI, ICICI, SFCs, IIBI, UTI,

304

• • •

• •

General Knowledge  2020

etc.; and (iv) financial intermediaries like merchant banks. The capital market in India can be classified into: ƒƒ Gilt-edged market or market for government and semi-government securities; ƒƒ Industrial securities market; ƒƒ Development financial institutions; and ƒƒ Non-banking financial companies. The gilt-edged securities markets are the market for government and semi-government securities, which carry fixed interest rates. The industrial securities market is the market for equities and debentures of companies of the corporate sector. If shares or debentures of private corporations, primary sureties of government companies or new sureties and issue of bonds of public sector are sold or purchased in the capital market, then the market is called Primary Capital Market. Secondary Market includes transactions in the stock exchange and gilt-edged market. Merchant bank, mutual fund, leasing companies, risk capital companies etc. Collect and invest public money into the capital market. Unit Trust of India (UTI) is the biggest Mutual Fund Institution of India.

Stock Exchange

• The stock exchanges is the market for buying and selling of stocks, shares, securities, bonds and debentures, etc. • The first organised stock exchange in India was started in Bombay (now Mumbai) when the “Native share Brokers’ Association” known as the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) was formed by the brokers in Bombay. BSE was Asia’s oldest stock exchange. • Under the Securities Contract (Regulation) Act of 1956, the Government of India has so far recognised 23 stock exchanges. Bombay is the premier exchange in the country. • With the setting up to National Stock Exchange, all regional stock exchanges have lost relevance.

• The BSE transformed itself into a corporate entity from being a brokers association, from the middle of August 2005. • To prevent excessive speculation and volatility in the stock market SEBI has introduced rolling settlements from July 2, 2001, under which settlement has to be made every day.

Some Important Share Price Index of India

• BSE SENSEX: This is the representative index of 30 main shares. Its base year is 1978-79. BSE is the oldest stock exchange of India, founded in 1875. • BSE 200: Its base year is 1989-90. • DOLLEX: Index of 200 BSE Dollar value Index is called DOLLEX. Its base year is 1989-90. • NSE-50: From 28 July 1998, its name S and P CNX Nifty. • CRISIL, set up in 1988, is a credit rating agency. It undertakes the rating fixed deposit programmers, convertible and nonconvertible and debentures and also credit assessment of companies. • CRISIL 500: It is the new share price index introduced by Credit Rating Agency the “Credit Rating Information Services of India Limited” (CRISIL) on January 18, 1996. • Apart from CRISIL, there is another credit rating agency called “Investment Information and Credit Rating Agency of India Limited (ICRA)”. It rates debt instrument of both financial and manufacturing companies. • The National Stock Exchange (NSE) has launched a new version of its online trading software called Exchange for Automatic Trading (NEAT). • India’s fiscal system includes the management of revenue sources and expenditure of the Central and State Governments, public debt, deficit financing, budget, tax structure, etc.

Sources of Revenue for Centre

The revenue of the Central Government consists of the following elements (i) Tax revenue and (ii) Non-tax revenue. Tax revenue comes broadly from three sources– (a) taxes on income and expenditure;

Indian Economy

(c) Fiscal Deficit refers to the difference between total expenditure (revenue, capital, and loans net a repayment) on one hand; and on the other hand, revenue receipts plus and those capital receipts which are not in the form of borrowings but which in the end accrue to the government. (d) Primary Deficit refers to fiscal deficit minus interest payments. Monetised Deficit = Increment in Net RBI Credit to the Central Government.

(b) taxes on property and capital transaction; and (c) taxes on commodities and services. Non-tax revenue, consists of–(a) currency, coinage and mint and (b) interest receipts and dividends; and other non-tax revenue.

Sources of Revenue for State

The main sources are: (a) state tax revenue; (b) share in central taxes; and (c) income from social, commercial and economic service and profits of state-run enterprises, state tax revenue includes among others, land revenue, stamp, registration and estate duty, etc.

Expenditure of the Centre

• • •

• •

The Central Government makes expenditures broadly under two heads: (i) Plan expenditure and (ii) Non-plan expenditure. Under plan expenditure comes the outlay for agriculture, rural development, irrigation and flood control, energy, industry and minerals, transport, communications, science and technology, environment and economic service, etc. The major non-plan expenditures are interest payments, defence, subsidies and general services. Public debt of the Government of India is of two kinds–Internal and External. Internal debt: It comprises loans raised from the open market, compensation bonds, prize bonds, etc. treasury bills issued to the RBI, commercial banks, etc. External debt: It consists of loans taken from World Bank, IMF, ADB and individual countries like USA, Japan, etc. Deficit Financing is a fiscal tool in the hands of the government to bridge the gap between revenue receipt and revenue expenditure.

Deficits

(a) Revenue Deficit refers to the excess of revenue expenditure over revenue receipts. (b) Budget Deficit refers to the excess of total expenditure over total receipts. Here, total receipts include current revenue and net internal and external capital receipts of the governments.

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Indian Fiscal System Fiscal System

• It refers to the management of revenue and capital expenditure finances of the state.

Sources of Revenue

• Main sources of revenue are customs duties, excise duties, service tax, taxes on property, corporate tax and income tax.

Sources of Expenditure

• Plan Expenditure includes agriculture, rural development, irrigation and flood control, energy, industry, minerals, transport and communication, etc. • • • • • • • •

Public Debt

Internal Debt External Debt Revenue Expenditure includes Capital Receipts includes Recovery of Loans Other Receipts (mainly PSU) (Disinvestment) Borrowings and other Liabilities Capital expenditure is huge expenditure, e.g., repayment of past loan including PPF (Private Provident Fund) and small saving. • Revenue Deficit is the difference between Revenue Receipts and Revenue Expenditure.

Budget

• The core of the budget is called the annual financial statement. This is the main budget document. Under Article 112 of the Constitution, a statement of estimated receipts and expenditure of the Govt. of

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General Knowledge  2020

India has to be laid before the Parliament in respect of every financial year running from April 1 to March 31 while under article 202 of the Constitution a statements of estimated receipts and expenditures of the State Governments has to be laid before the House of the State Legislature concerned. T h e A n n u a l B u d g e t o f t h e Cen tra l Government provides estimates of receipts and expenditures of the government. The Budget consists of two parts viz. (i) Revenue Budget and (ii) Capital Budget. Revenue Budget: All “Current” receipts such as taxation, surplus of public enterprises, and ‘expenditures’ of the government. Capital Budget: All “Capital” receipts and expenditure such as domestic and foreign loans repayments, foreign aid, etc. Finance Bill is ordinarily introduced every year to give effect to the financial proposals of the government for the following financial year.

Preparation of Budget

• The budget is prepared by the budget division in the Ministry of Finance (MoF) after consulting with other ministries and the Planning Commission.

Budget Timeline

• Budget draft prepared and finalised– 28/29 February. • Budget tabled before Parliament – March. • General discussion on Budget proposal – March-April. • House adjourns individual ministries Demands for Grants studies by Standing Committees – April. • Detailed discussion and voting on ministries Demand for Grants – 1 April. • New financial year begins–April.

Stages in Budget Enactment The budget goes through the following six stages in the Parliament. • Presentation of the budget on the floor of the House before the Lok Sabha. • General discussion on the budget.

Vote on Account

• If budget is not passed before the beginning of financial year, then government use the concept of vote on account. Usually, the Appropriation Bill (expenditure part of budget) is passed by end of April, but government needs money from beginning of financial year, so government use vote-on-account to remove money from consolidated fund of India. • Scrutiny by departmentally related standing committees. • Voting on demands for grants. • Passing of appropriation bill (Article 114 of the Constitution of India). • Passing of finance bill (under rule 219 of the Lok Sabha).

Types of Budgeting

• Line Item Budgeting: It emphasises on the items (Objects) of expenditure without highlighting its purpose. • Output Budgeting: It concentrates only on the quantitative aspect of expenditure. • Performance-based Budgeting: Its attempt to solve decision-making problem based on a programmes ability to convert inputs to outputs and use inputs to affect certain outcomes. • Outcome Budgeting: This type of budgeting tries to ensure that budget outlays translate into concrete outcomes. • Zero-based Budgeting: It is a method of budgeting, in which all budgetary allocations are set to nil at the beginning of a financial year. • Gender Budgeting: It came into being in 2004-05. To contribute towards the women empowerment and removal of inequality based on gender, role of budgeting has been accepted through this step. • Programme Budgeting: It emphasis the planning aspect of budgeting for selecting the best out of a number of available programmes and for optimising the choice.

Smart Facts ‘Budget’

• John Mathai proposed the first budget of Republic of India in 1950.

Indian Economy

• Finance Minister Morarji Desai has given budget for the maximum number of times. • Indira Gandhi is the only woman to hold the post of the Finance Minister and to have presented the budget in her capacity as the Prime Minister of India in 1978.

Banking in India • The Finance Ministry issues currency notes and coins of rupee one, all other currency notes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India. • The first bank of limited liability managed by Indians was Oudh Commercial Bank founded in 1881. Subsequently, Punjab National Bank was established in 1884. • The Banking Companies Act was passed in February 1949, which was subsequently amended to read as Banking Regulation Act, 1949. • The Indian banking system consists of commercial banks, both in public and private sectors, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and cooperative banks. • Commercial banks are broadly classified into nationalised or public sector banks and private sector banks, with a few foreign banks. The public sector banks account for more than 92% of the entire banking business in India occupying a dominant position in the commercial banking. The State Bank of India and its seven associate banks along with another 19 banks are the public sector banks. • Oudh Commercial Bank was the first complete Commercial Bank of India. • The Imperial Bank was established in the year 1921 by merging three main Presidency Banks. • The largest bank, Imperial Bank, was nationalised in 1955 on recommendation of Gorewala Committee and rechristened as State Bank of India. • On July 19, 1969, 14 big commercial banks with deposits worth ` 50 crores or more and on April 15, 1980, six other scheduled banks were nationalised, bringing total number of nationalised banks to 27 (19 + SBI 7 SBI Associates).

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• After the merger of ‘State Bank of Saurashtra’ and ‘State Bank of Indore’ in the State Bank of India, the number of Associates of SBI has come to 6. Establishment of Various Financial Institutions 1.

Reserve Bank of India

1934

2.

Industrial Finance Corporation of India

1948. Sick financial institution

3.

ICICI

1955

4.

SBI

1955. Nationalised

5.

Life Insurance Corporation (LIC)

1956

6.

Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI)

1964

7.

Unit Trust of India (UTI)

1964

8.

HUDCO

1970

9.

General Insurance Corporation (GIC)

1972

10.

NABARD

1982

11.

SEBI (Replaced Controller of Capital Issue)

1988. Functional in 1992

12.

Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI)

1990. Subsidiary of IDBI

13.

IRDA

1999

Lead Bank Scheme

• After the nationalisation of 14 banks the Lead Bank Scheme of the RBI was adopted in 1969 for branch expansion programme of banks.

Scheduled and Non-scheduled Banks

• The scheduled banks are those which are entered in the second schedule of the RBI Act, 1934. • The commercial banks (India and foreign), regional rural banks and state co-operative banks or scheduled banks. Non-scheduled banks are those which are not included in the second schedule of the RBI Act, 1934.

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Reserve Bank of India (RBI)

• RBI was set up on the basis of Hilton Young Commission recommendation in April 1935, with the enactment of RBI Act, 1934. Its first Governor was C.D. Deshmukh.

Administration

• The headquarters of RBI are in Mumbai.

Quantitative/General Credit Control

• Quantitative credit controls are used to control the volume of credit and indirectly to control the inflationary and deflationary pressures caused by expansion and contra­ ction of credit. The quantitative credit control consists of: • Bank Rate: It is also called the rediscount rate. It is the rate, at which the RBI gives finance to commercial banks. • Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): The RBI (Amendment) Bill, 2006, empowers RBI to prescribe CRR–Cash that banks deposits with the RBI without any floor rate or ceiling rate. • Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR): It is the ratio of liquid asset, which all commercial Banks have to keep in the form of cash, gold and unencumbered approved securities equal to not more than 40% of their total demand and time deposit liabilities (ranges is 25‑40%). • Repo Rate: It is the rate, at which RBI lends short-term money to the bank against securities. • Reverse Repo Rate: It is the rate, at which banks park short-term excess liquidity with the RBI. • O p e n M a r k e t O p e r a t i o n s ( O M O s ) : Under OMOs, the RBI sells G-securities in the market.

Qualitative/Selective/Direct Credit Control

Qualitative measures are used to make sure that purpose, for which loan is given is not misused. It is done through: • Credit rationing. • Regulating loan to consumption, etc.

Indian Banks Operations Abroad

• SBI has the largest network of foreign offices followed by Bank of Baroda.

• Among private sector banks, ICICI Bank has the largest foreign.

Banking Ombudsman

• The scheme is in operation since 1995 and work under the control and supervision of the RBI.

Criteria

• The 2001 revised guidelines have set certain criteria for the establishment of the new private sector banks. Some of these are: ƒƒ The bank should have minimum net worth of ` 100 crores. ƒƒ The promoters holding should be a minimum of 25% of the paid-up capital. ƒƒ Within three years of the starting of the operations, the bank should offer shares of public.

Housing Development Finance Corporation (HDFC)

HDFC was the first private bank to receive license after 1993 economic reforms.

Priority Sector Lending

• The broad categories of advances under priority sector lending now include agriculture MSME sector, microcredit, edu­ cation and housing. • The priority sector lending targets of 40%, 32% and 60% have been fixed with respect to domestic, foreign and regional rural banks respectively.

Differential Interest Rate Scheme

• The scheme was introduced in 1972, under which public sector banks are required to fulfill the target of at least 1% of the advances at the end of the previous year to the weakest of the weaker sections of the society at an interest rate of 4% per annum. • Lead Bank Scheme under which each public sector bank is allocated certain districts and these banks have to bring development of those districts.

Regional Rural Banks

• The Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), the newest form of banks, have come into existence since middle of 1970s (sponsored

Indian Economy

by individual nationalised commercial banks) with the objective of developing rural economy by providing crediting and depositing facilities for agriculture and other productive activities of all kinds in rural areas. • First Regional Rural Bank was established on 2 October 1975.

Co-operative Banks

• Co-operative banks are so-called because they are organised under the provisions of the Co-operative Credit Societies law of the states. The major beneficiary of the Cooperative Banking is the agricultural sector in particular and the rural sector in general. The first such bank was established in 1904. • In the year 1991, Narasimhan Committee was constituted to advice or the issue of reconstruction of banking system.

Development Banks

• Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI), established in 1964. • Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI), established in 1948. • Industrial Credit and Investment Cor­ poration of India Limited (ICICI) esta­ blished in 1991. • Small Industries Development Bank of India (SIDBI), established in 1988. • Export-Import Bank of India (Exim Bank) was established in 1982. • National Housing Bank (NHB) started operations in 1988. • NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) was established in 1982.

Insurance

• Insurance industry includes two sectors– Life Insurance and General Insurance. Life Insurance in India was introduced by Britishers. A British firm in 1818 established the Oriental Life Insurance Company at Calcutta now Kolkata. • Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) of India was established in September 1956. General Insurance Corporation (GIC) was established in November 1972.

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• On 3 November 2000, GIC was renamed as GIC Re and approved as Indian Reinsurer and the four subsidiaries of GIC were separated from GIC and are functioning independently under Public Sector General Insturance companies (GIPSA). • I n d i a n i n s u r a n c e s e c t o r h a s l o w penetration, particularly in the rural areas. The committee on Insurance Sector Reforms was set-up in 1993 under the chairmanship of R.N. Malhotra which submitted its report in 1994. • At present LIC is operating internationally through Branch Offices in Fiji, Mauritius, and UK and through Joint Venture Companies in Bahrain, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kenya and Saudi Arabia.

Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority (IRDA)

• IRDA was set up on April 19, 2000 under the IRDA Act, 1999. • IRDA comprises of a chairman, three wholetime members and four part-time members. Pension Sector • New Pension System launched on 1 January 2004. • With effect from 1 November 2009, the NPS was opened to all citizens.

• Swawalamban Scheme was announced in the Budget of 2010. It is an incentive scheme for the NPS. • The revised guidelines for NPS have raised the age from 55 years to 60 years. • The Pension Fund Regulatory Development Authority was established on 23 August, 2003.

Base Rate System

• Base rate system asks the banks to set a level of minimum interest rates charged while giving out the loans. • Introduced on the recommendation of Deepak Mohanty Committee.

Basel Norms

• Basel Norms are set by Bank of International Settlement (BIS) headquartered in Basel,

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Switzerland. It prescribes for a set of minimum capital requirement for banks. • In India, Basel norms were introduced in 1988 by the RBI. • • • • • • • • • •

Instruments of Money Market

91 days Treasury Bills (T-bills) 182 days T-bills 364 days T-bills 14 days T-bills Dated Government Securities Certificate of Deposits Commercial Papers Money Market Index Bankers Acceptance Rate LIBOR/MIBOR

Tax System • A compulsory contribution given by a citizen or organisation to the government is called Tax. • The tax system has been divided into two parts: Tax by Central Government: Custom Duty, Income Tax and Corporate Tax, etc. Tax by State Government: The State Government has right to collect all the taxes in this category and to spend them. • There are two types of taxes: 1. Direct Taxes and 2. Indirect Taxes. • Direct Taxes: The taxes levied by the Central Government on income and wealth are important direct taxes. The important taxes levied on incomes are–corporation tax and income tax. Taxes levied on wealth are wealth tax, gift tax, etc. • Indirect Taxes: The main forms of indirect taxes are customs and excise duties and sales tax. The Central Government is empowered to levy customs and excise duties (except on alcoholic liquors and narcotics) where sales tax is the exclusive jurisdiction of the State Governments. • Progressive Tax: A tax that takes away a higher proportion of one’s income as the income rises is known as progressive tax. Indian Income Tax is a progressive and direct tax.

• R. Chelliah Committee was constituted in August 1991 for suggesting reforms in Tax Structure. • K.L. Rekhi Committee was constituted in 1992 for suggesting uniform regulations for indirect taxation (Customs Duty and Excise Duty). Direct and Indirect Tax Direct Tax

Indirect Tax

Corporation Tax

Excise Duties

Income Tax Service Tax

Interest Tax

Central Value-added Tax (Vat)

Expenditure Tax

Sales Tax

Wealth Tax

Property Tax

Gift Tax

Octroi

Estate Duty

Customs Duties

Land Revenue

Stamp Duties

GST would be applicable on “supply” of goods or services as against the present concept of tax on the manufacture of goods or on sale of goods or on provision of services. GST would be based on the principle of destination based consumption taxation as against the present principle of origin-based taxation. It would be a dual GST with the Centre and the States simultaneously levying it on a common base. The GST to be levied by the Centre would be called Central GST (central tax-CGST) and that to be levied by the States [including Union territories with legislature] would be called State GST (state tax-SGST). Union territories without legislature would levy Union territory GST (union territory tax-UTGST).

GST replaced the following taxes currently levied and collected by the Centre:

(a) Central Excise Duty; (b) Duties of Excise (Medicinal and Toilet Preparations); (c) Additional Duties of Excise (Goods of Special Importance); (d) Additional Duties of Excise (Textiles and Textile Products); (e) Additional Duties of Customs (commonly known as CVD);

Indian Economy

(f) Special Additional Duty of Customs (SAD); (g) Service Tax; (h) Cesses and surcharges insofar as they relate to supply of goods or services.

State taxes that would be subsumed within the GST are

(a) State VAT; (b) Central Sales Tax; (c) Purchase Tax; (d) Luxury Tax; (e) Entry Tax (All forms); (f) Entertainment Tax (except those levied by the local bodies); (g) Taxes on advertisements; (h) Taxes on lotteries, betting and gambling; (i) State cesses and surcharges insofar as they relate to supply of goods or services. GST would apply to all goods and services except Alcohol for human consumption. GST on five specified petroleum products (Crude, Petrol, Diesel, ATF & Natural gas) would be applicable from a date to be recommended by the GSTC. Tobacco and tobacco products would be subjected to GST. In addition, the Centre would continue to levy Central Excise duty. A common threshold exemption would apply to both CGST and SGST. Taxpayers with an annual turnover of `20 lakh (`10 lakh for special category States (except J & K) as specified in article 279A of the Constitution would be exempted from GST. A compounding option (i.e. to pay tax at a flat rate without credits) would be available to small taxpayers (including to manufacturers other than specified category of manufacturers and service providers) having an annual turnover of up to `75 lakh [`50 lakh for special category States (except J & K and Uttarakhand) enumerated in article 279A of the Constitution]. The threshold exemption and compounding scheme would be optional.

Important Taxes Imposed in India

• Tax on Income and Wealth: The Central Government imposes different types of tax on income and wealth, viz. income tax, corporate tax, wealth tax and gift tax. Out of them income tax and corporate tax are more important from the revenue point of view.

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• Agricultural income in India is free from income tax. • Corporate Tax: Corporate Tax is imposed on Registered Companies and corporations. • The rate of corporate tax on all companies is equal. However, various types of rebates and exemptions have been provided. • Custom Duties: As per the Constitutional provisions, the Central Government imposes imports duty and export duty both. • Imports Duties: Generally, imports duties are ad-valorem in India. • Excise Duties: Excise duties are commodity tax as it is imposed on production of an item and it has no relevance with its sale. This is the largest source of revenue for the Central Government. • Except liquor, opium and other drugs, production of all the other items is taxable under Central Excise Duties. • On July 15, 2010 Indian rupee got the much-awaited symbol. • The new symbol is an amalgamation of Devanagari ‘Ra’ and the Roman ‘R’ without the stem. • The new symbol designed by D. Udaya Kumar, a post-graduate of IIT Bombay, was finally selected by the Union Cabinet on July 15, 2010. • One Coin and One Rupee note belong to ‘Legal Tender Money category’. • M1 is known as Narrow Money. • M3 is known as Broad Money.

Industry • I n d u s t r y s e c t o r c o m p r i s e s m i n i n g , manu­facturing, electricity and gas and construction. • The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1948 marked the beginning of the evolution of the Indian Industrial Policy. • In the Industrial Policy of 1948, the impor­ tance of both public sector and private sector was accepted. However, the responsibility of development of basis industries was handed over to public sector. • The Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 gave the public sector strategic role in the economy.

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• The IPR, 1956, called the Economic Constitution of India, gave the public sector a strategic role in the economy. • The main objective of the Industrial Policy of 1956 was to develop public sector, cooperative sector and control on private monopoly. • There were four categories of industries in the Industrial Policy of 1948, which was reduced to three in the Industrial Policy of 1956. • In 1973, Joint Sector was constituted on the recommendations of Dutta Committee. • The Industrial Policy of 1980 was influenced by the concept of federalism and the policy of giving concession to agriculture based industries was implemented through it.

New Industrial Policy, 1991

• Abolition of industrial licensing: The new industrial policy abolished all industrial licensing irrespective of the level of investment, except for certain industries. • Entry of foreign investment and techno­ logy made easier: Approval would be given for direct foreign investment up to 15% foreign equity in high priority industries. • Public sector’s role diluted: Industries that continue to be reserved for the public sector are: (i) arms and ammunition and allied items of defence equipment, defence aircraft and warships; (ii) atomic energy; (iii) mineral oils and minerals specified in the schedule to the Atomic Energy (Control of Production and Use) Order, 1953; and (iv) railways. • MRTP Act: Under the MRTP Act, all firms with assets above a certain size (` 100 crores since 1985) were classified as MRTP firms. Such firms were permitted to enter selected industries only and this also a case by case approval basis. • Liberalisation of industrial location policy: The new Industrial Policy provides that in locations other than cities of more than one million population, there will be no requirement of obtaining industrial approvals from the Centre, except for industries subjects to compulsory licensing. In cities with a population of more than one million, industries other than those of

• •

non-polluting type will be located outside several kms of the periphery. Abolition of Phased Manufacturing Pro­ grammes for new projects. Mandatory Convertibility clause removed: A large part of industrial investment in India is financed by loans from banks and finance institutions. These institutions have followed a mandatory practice including a convertibility clause in their lending operations for new projects. This mandatory convertibility clause has been abolished by the new industrial policy. In the Union Budget of 1997-98, nine public sector undertakings, which performed very well were given the name of ‘Navratna’ and were made autonomous. Navratna: Public sector enterprises have been given enhanced autonomy and delegation of powers to incur capital expenditure (without any monetary ceiling), to enter intertechnology joint ventures, to raise capital from domestic and international market, to establish financial joint ventures and to wholly own subsidiary.

Public Sector

• In terms of ownership, public sector enterprise (PSE) comprises all undertakings that are owned by the government, or the public, whereas private sector comprises enterprises that are owned by private persons.

Public Sector Enterprises

• The concept of Memorandum of Under­ standing (MoU), on the recom­mendation of Arjun Sengupta Committee (1988), was started in 1991. • The concept of Maharatnas, Navratnas and Miniratnas was started in 1997.

Maharatna

• In 2009, the government established the Maharatna status, which raised the PSEs investment ceiling from ` 1,000 crores to ` 5,000 crores.

Critieria for Maharatna

The six criteria for the eligibility of Maharatna are:

Indian Economy

• Having Navratna status; • Listed on India stock exchange • Have an average annual turnover of more than ` 25,000 crores during the last three years; • An average annual net worth of more than ` 15,000 crores during the last three years; • An average annual net profit after tax of more than ` 5,000 crores during the last three years; • Should have significant global presence. List of Maharatnas There are Eight Maharatnas in India: • Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) • Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL) • Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) • Steel Authority India Limited (SAIL) • Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) • National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC) • Coal India Limited (CIL) • Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited

Navratna

• •

• • •

To qualify as a Navratna Company: The company must obtain a score of 60 (of the total 100). The score is based on six parameters, which included net profit to net worth, total manpower cost to total cost of production, Profit before Depreciation, Interest and Taxes (PBDIT) to capital employed, PBDIT to turnover, earning per share and intersectoral performance. The company must first be a Miniratna-I and must have four independent directors on its board. The Navratna status empowers a company to invest upto ` 1,000 crores on 15% of their net worth overseas without government approval. At present, there are 17 Navratnas. • • • • • • •

List of Navratnas Bharat Electronics Limited Hindustan Aeronautics Limited Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Limited National Aluminium Company Limited National Mineral Development Corporation Neyveli Lignite Corporation Limited

• • • • • • • • •

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Oil India Limited Power Finance Corporation Limited Power Grid Corporation of India Limited Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited Rural Electrification Corporation Limited Shipping Carnation of India Limited Container Corporation of India Ltd. Engineers India Ltd. National Building Construction Corporation Ltd.

Disinvestment and Privatisation

• Disinvestment is a process through which privatisation could take place. • First Disinvestment Commission was set up in 1996, under the Chairmanship of E.V. Ramakrishna, which was later constituted in July 2001, under Dr. R.H. Patil. • There is a difference between privatisation and disinvestment. Privatisation implies a change in ownership resulting in a change in management. ‘Disinvestment’ is a winder term extending from dilution for the stake of the government to the transfer of ownership (when govt. stake reduced beyond 51%). • To minimize the financial burden on the Public Sector Enterprises the government has started Voluntary Retirement Scheme (VRS) for the employees by giving full compensation to employees. This is called “Golden Hand Shake Scheme”.

Small Scale Industries

Their importance can be explained as: i. Employment Generation. ii. Equitable Distribution. iii. Mobilisation of Small Savings. iv. Exports contribution. v. Environment-friendly. However, small scale industries are suffering from a number of problems like: (i) Lack of timely, adequate and easy finance; (ii) Lack of availability of raw material; (iii) Lack of sound marketing system; and (iv) Competition with large scale sector.

Sick Industries

• A sick unit is one which is in existence for at least five years and it is found at the end of

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• •

• • • • • • • • •

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the accounting year that it had fully eroded its net worth 30,000 units fall every year. A weak unit is the one which erodes 15% more of its net worth. Textile industry is the largest industry in the country. The share of textile and clothing industry in total industrial production is about 14% also contributes 13.14% in total merchandise exports of the country. This industry provides employment to about 350 lakh people in a country. Ahmedabad is known as Boston of East. Kanpur is called Manchester of North India. The first cycle making factory of India was established in Calcutta in 1932. India holds second place in the field of cycle production in the world. Abid Husain Committee is related to reforms in small industries. The industries in which maximum ` 1 crore is invested are called Small industries. Industrial Finance Corporation of India (IFCI) was established on 1 July 1948 by a special Act of Parliament. Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) is an apex institution in the field of industrial finance. Industrial Reconstruction Board of India (IRBI) was established in 1971. Unit Trust of India was established in 1964. The head office of Life Insurance Corporation of India is in Mumbai. General Insurance Company of India (GIC) was established in 1972. Indian Industrial Investment Bank Limited was established on 17 March 1977 by the government, under Companies Act, 1956. Presently, its authorized capital is 1000 crore rupees and its head office is in Kolkata.

Large Scale Industries Iron and Steel Industry

• F i r s t s t e e l i n d u s t r y a t K u l t i , W e s t Bengal–Bengal Iron Works Company was established in 1870. • First large scale steel plant–TISCO at Jamshedpur (1907) was followed at by IISCO at Burnpur (1919).

• The first public-owned steel plant was Rourkela Integrated Steel Plant set up in 1954 with the help of a German company, Demag. • India is the fourth largest producer of crude steel in the world. • India is the largest producer of sponge iron since 2002. • Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was established in 1974.

Cotton and Synthetic Textile Industry

• It is the largest industry in India. The first Indian modernised cotton cloth mill was established in 1818 at fort Gloster near Kolkata but this was unsuccessful. • The second mill was established in 1854 at Bombay by K.G.N. Daber.

Jute Industry

• Jute industry was started in 1855 at Resra and India is the largest producer and second largest exporter of jute in the world.

Gems and Jewellery

• According to the data released by the World Gold Council (WGC), India is the largest consumer of gold. • India (especially, Seurat and Mumbai) ranks among the ‘big four’ diamond cutting centres of the world, the other three being, Belgium (Antwerp), the USA (New York) and Israel (Ramat Gan).

Paper Industry

• The first paper mill in India was set up at Sreerampur, West Bengal, in the year of 1862.

Silk Industry

• India is the second largest (after China) silk manufacturer. • The majority of silk is produced mainly in Bhoodan Pochampally (also known as silk city), Kanchipuram, Dharamvaram and Mysore.

Sugar Industry

• India is the largest producer of sugar in the world with a 22% share. • It is the second largest agro-based industry in the country. • B.B. Mahajan Committee was set up to study the sugar industry.

Indian Economy

• Dual price mechanism with partial control is applied to sugar industry.

Cement Industry

• India is the second largest producer of cement in the world.

Petrochemical Industry

• The real thrust to this industry came with the establishment of Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited at Baroda. • Kanpur Committee was set up to identify and support the growth of basic petrochemical and their end.

Fertilizer Industry

• The first fertiliser industry was set up in 1906, in Ranipet near Chennai. • India is the third largest producer of fertilizer after China and USA and second largest consumer after China. • Urea is the only fertilizer under statutory price control.

Automotive Industry

• India is the second largest manufacturer of motorcycle and fifth largest manufacturer of commercial vehicles in the world. • India is the largest manufacturer of tractors in the world.

Foreign Direct Investment • FDI occurs when a company invests in a business that is located in another country and it is investing not less than 10% of shares belonging to the foreign company. It is a non-debt capital flow. • If the investment is less than 10% shares then it is called FII (Foreign Institutional Investment). • Foreign portfolio investment occurs, when foreign investment in the form of shares, equities and bonds, is made by a foreign company.

FDI in Retail

• Since, May 20, 2011, FDI in Limited Liability Partnership (LLP) has been allowed.

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Unorganised Sector and Informal Economy

• Unorganised Informal workers refer to workers, who are not covered under any social security benefits irrespective of whether they work in organised or unorganised sector. 86% of the total workforce was in the unorganised sector in 2004-05. • To look into the problems of unorganised sector, National Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector was set up under the Chairmanship of Dr. Arjun Sengupta. • In accordance with the recommendation of the NCEUS, the Government of India enacted the Unorganised Worker Social Security Act, 2008. The act came into effect from 16 May 2009.

National Manufacturing Policy (NMP)

• The NMP was released by the government on 4 November 2011 with following objectives: ƒƒ Increase manufacturing growth to 1214% over the medium-term. ƒƒ Enable manufacturing to contribute at least 25% of GDP by 2022. ƒƒ Create 100 million additional jobs in the manufacturing sector by 2025. ƒƒ Provides for National Investment and Manufacturing Zone (NIMZ) on lands, which are degraded and uncultivable.

National Governance Plan

It was launched in May 2006. It comprises Mission Mode Projects, covers e-infrastructure and MCA 21.

National Policy on Electronics (NPE), 2011

• NPE was released on 3 October 2011. The main objectives are: ƒƒ To achieve a turnover of about US$ 400 billion by 2020. ƒƒ To create employment opportunities of around 28 million. ƒƒ To increase export from US$ 5.5 billion to US$ 80 billion 2020.

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Automobile Industry

• Automobile Industry was delicensed in July 1991 with the announcement of the New Industrial Policy. • The passenger car was however delicensed in 1993. • At present 100% Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is permissible under automatic route in this sector including passenger car segment.

Steel

• Iron and Steel Industry took birth in India in the year 1870 when Bengal Iron Works Company established its plant at Kulti, West Bengal. • Large scale iron and steel production was started in 1907 by TISCO established at Jamshedpur (Jharkhand). • As per the data from International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI) India is the 7th largest producer of steel in the world. • At present India is the 9th largest Crude Steel producing country in the world. • Today, India is the largest producer of sponge iron in the world.

Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise Development Act, 2006

• This new Act, named as ‘Small and Medium Enterprise Development Act, 2006’ has become effective from October 2, 2006. • The Act provides the first-ever legal framework for recognition of the concept of ‘enterprise’ (comprising both manufacturing and service and integrating the three tiers of these enterprises, viz., micro, small and medium).

Foreign Trade • After independence, inward looking foreign trade policies were accepted and the policy of import replacement was its base.

Volume of India’s Foreign Trade

• After independence, Indian foreign trade has cumulative progress both qualitatively and quantitatively. Though the size of foreign trade and its value both have increased during post-independence era, this increase in foreign trade cannot be said satisfactory

because Indian share in total foreign trade of the world has remained remarkable low. • The structural changes in imports since 1951 show: (a) rapid growth of indus­ trialisation necessitating increasing imports of capital goods and raw materials; (b) growing imports of raw materials on the basis of liberalisation of imports for export promotion; and (c) declining imports of good grains and consumer goods due to the country becoming self-sufficient in food grains and other consumer goods through agricultural and industrial growth. • Exports of Indian are broadly classified into four categories: (i) Agriculture and allied products. Ores and minerals man­ ufactured goods and (ii) Mineral fuels and lubricants. • Exports of India over the years show a clear decline in the importance of agriculture and allied products and a substantial increase in the importance of manufactured goods. This has been due to change production structure of the economy and the overall growth of the economy.

Direction of Foreign Trade

• India is having maximum trade with OECD countries (mainly they US, EU and Japan). • Indian trade has been partially shifted from West Europe of East Asia and OECD countries. • The high growth rate in Japan and ASEAN countries gave a high demand and favourable market to India exports. This has been one of the reasons responsible for increasing Indian exports to East-Asian region of the world.

New Foreign Trade Policy (2009-14)

• In the Foreign Trade Policy for the year 2009-14 announced on August 2009, the government spelt out a bond vision to double India exports of goods and services by 2014 and to double India’s percentage share of global trade by 2020 and to focus on the generation of addition employment.

Balance of Payments

• BoP comprises current account, capital account and omissions and changes in foreign exchange reserves.

Indian Economy

• Under current account transactions are classified into merchandise (exports and imports) and invisibles. Balance of Payment Crisis: It means that exports exceed imports in value. • The main component of capital account includes foreign investment, loans and banking capital. Non-debt Liabilities includes FDI and portfolio investment comprising FIIs, ADRs/ GDRs. • Debt Liabilities included External ass­ istance, External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs), trade credit and banking capital (NRIs deposits). Balance of Payment: The balance of Payments may be classified into current account, capital account, unilateral transfer account and gold account. Invisibles: A term used to describe those items such as financial series, included in the current Balance of Payments accounts, as distinct from physically visible Imports and Exports of goods.

Special Economic Zone (SEZ)

• Asia’s first Export Processing Zone (EPZ) was set up in Kandla, India in 1965. • The first SEZ policy was announced in April 2000. • SEZ Act, 2005, was enacted with from 10 February 2005.

SEZ Act, 2005

• Duty-free import/domestic procurement of goods for development, operation and maintenance of SEZ units. • 100% Income Tax exemption on export income of SEZ units; exemption from Central Tax, Sales Tax and Service Tax; and single-window clearance mechanism for the establishment of units. SEZs in India S. No.

SEZ

Location

Type

1.

Kandla SEZ

Gujarat

Multi-product

2.

SEEPZ

Mumbai

Electronics, gems and jewellery

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3.

Noida SEZ

Uttar Pradesh

Multi-product

4.

MEPZ

Chennai

Multi-product

5.

Cochin SEZ

Kerala

Multi-product

6.

Falta SEZ

West Bengal

Multi-product

7.

Visakhapatnam SEZ

Andhra Pradesh

Multi-product

Foreign Exchange Reserves in India

• The foreign exchange reserves of the country include three important components: (i) Foreign Exchange Assets of RBI, (ii) Gold Stock of RBI and (iii) SDR holdings of the governments. • After 1991, Indian foreign exchange reserves have rapidly increased due to various reasons which are as follows: i. Devaluation of Rupee. ii. Availability of loans from international institutions. iii. Availability of foreign exchange from NRIs under various schemes. iv. Increase in foreign investment (both direct and indirect). v. Full convertibility or rupee on current account. • FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) came into force in July 2000. This FEMA has replaced Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1943 (FERA, 1973). • India’s total external trade (exports plus imports including re-exports) in the year 1950-51 stood at ` 1214 crore. Since then, this has witnessed continuous increase with occasional downturns.

The Indian Currency System

The present currency system is based on minimum reserve system of note issue. It was adopted in 1957, under the minimum reserve system, minimum of gold and foreign securities to the extent of ` 200 crore (of which gold should be of value ` 115 crore) and the balance in rupee securities is main­ tained. • The revised monetary measures are: M1= Coins and Notes + Demand Deposits + Other deposits with RBI.

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M2 = M1 + Time liabilities portion of saving deposits with banks + Certificates of deposits issued by banks + Term deposit maturing within a year. M3 = M2 + terms deposit with banks with maturity over one year + call/term borrowing of the banking system.

Devaluation of Currency

• In India, devaluation has been resorted to four times. (a) First Devaluation in June 1949. (b) Second Devaluation in June. (c) Third Devaluation on July 1, 1991. (d) Fourth Devaluation on July 3, 1991.

Inflation

Inflation means a persistent rise in the price levels of goods and services leading to a fall in the currency’s purchasing power. • • • • • •

Causes of Inflation

Printing too much money. Increase in production cost. Tax rises. Decline in exchange rates. War or other events causing instability. Increase in money supply in the economy.

Measures to Control Inflation

• Increasing the bank interest rates. • Regulating fixed exchange rates of the domestic currency. • Deflation: A general decline in prices often caused by a reduction in the supply of money or credit. Deflation can be also caused by a decrease in government, personal or investment spending. • Stagflation: When you have a slow economy with high inflation rates and unemployment, stagflation is usually the result. • Controlling prices and wages. • Providing cost of livings allowances to citizens. • Regulating black and speculative market. • Supply side inflation can be controlled by increasing production of economy, especially food grains and by improving infrastructure.

Wholesale Price Index (WPI)

It measures the change in wholesale prices on weekly basis. The base year for WPI is 2004-05.

Consumer Price Index (CPI)

It measures the change in retail prices on monthly basis.

Financial Relations between Centre and States

• Our Constitution provides residual powers to the Centre. Article 264 and Article 293 explain the financial relations between the Union and State Governments.

Finance Commission

• Under the provision of Article 280 of the Constitution, the President appoints a Finance Commission for the specific purpose of devolution of non-plan revenue resources. The Functions of the Commission are to make recommendations to the President in respect of: ƒƒ The distribution of net proceeds of taxes to be shared between the Union and the States and the allocation of share of such proceeds among the States. ƒƒ The principles, which should govern the payment of grants-in-aid by the Centre to the States. ƒƒ Any other matter concerning financial relations between the Centre and the States. • Composition of Finance Commission: The Finance Commission consists of Chairman and four other members to be appointed by President. They are eligible for re-appointment.

Fourteenth Finance Commission

The government constituted the Fourteenth Commission under former Reserve Bank of India Governor Yaga Vanugopal Reddy. The five member panel is to submit its report by 31 October 2014.

Indian Economy

Demography • • • • •

Population Trend in India

1891-1921 Period of stagnant population. 1921-51 Period of steady growth. 1951-81 Period of high growth. 1981-2011 Period of declining rate. The year 1921 is known as the year of Great Divide.

National Population Policy 2000

• • • • • • •

This policy outlined the following objective to be achieved. To lower down the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to achieve replacement level by 2010. Population stabilisation by 2045. Reduce MMR (Maternal Mortality Rate) to below 100 per 100000 births. Reduce IMR (Infant Mortality Rate) to below 30 per thousand live births. Making school education compulsory. Promote delayed marriage of girls. Promote and control communicable diseases.

Demographics

• First synchronised census in India took place in 1881. Since 1901, it has been taking place after every decade. • Census 2011, is the 15th census and 7th after independence. • The slogan of Census 2011 is “Our Census, Our Future”. • India was the first country to adopt family planning in world.

Miscellaneous Facts • According to the World Bank, on the basis of the purchasing power parity, the economy of India is the fourth largest economy in the world. • In the production of vegetables, India is on the second position (after China). • India is on the first position in the pro­ duction of milk. • The highest producer of milk in India is Uttar Pradesh. • India is the third largest producer of tobacco. The largest producer and consumer of tobacco is China.

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• Four industries which have been reserved for public sector are: Arms and Ammunition, Atomic Energy, Rail Transportation, and Minerals mentioned in the scheduled list of Atomic Energy. • The position of India is first as a producer of pulses. • First Hydel Power Plant in India was started in Darjeeling. • The Money-Order system in India was launched in 1880. • First postal stamp was launched in India in 1852. • Maharashtra is the first state which accorded the status of industry to agriculture in 1997. • Central Agmark Laboratory is in Nagpur. • First Cotton Industry of the country was established in Kolkata in 1818 and the second by Kovesjee Nana Bhai in Mumbai in 1853. • The largest number of co-operative insti­ tutions is in India. • Unorganised sectors are creating more employment than organised sector in India. • Three cities of India have more than one crore population–Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi. • Urbanisation is highest in Goa in India. • Asian Development Bank was established in 1966. (Head Office, Manila). • The social accounting method of estimating national income was developed by Richard Stone. • Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced demonetisation of ` 1000 and ` 500 notes with effect from midnight on 8 November 2016 • The Indian 2000 Rupee bank note is a denomination of the Indian Rupee. It was released by the RBI on 8 November 2016 after demonetisation of ` 500 and 1000 bank notes and has been in circulation since 10 November 2016. • TRIFED: Tribal co-operative Marketing Development Federation of India Ltd. established by government in 1987 to benefit small tribal farmers. • NAFED: National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation of India Ltd. was established for marketing the agricultural products. • Small industries have been completely relaxed from licensing.

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• Since 2002, price of all petroleum products are market determined. Kerosene and domestic LPG is supplied at subsidised rates to target groups. • Foreign exchange rates are not fixed. It changes with market conditions. • Agriculture Income Insurance Scheme was announced in 2004 to provide insurance safeguards and economic security to farmers. • Seed Crop Insurance is operational since 1999-2000. • Seed Bank is in operation since 1999‑2000. • Types of loans provided to Indian Farmers. (a) Short Term Loans: Less than 15 months. (b) Medium Term Loans: 15 months to 5 years. (c) Long Term Loans: More than 5 years.

Glossary of Economic and Financial Terms

Accrued interest: The interest due on a bond since the last interest payment was made. The buyer of the bond pays the market price plus accrued interest. Acquisition: The acquiring of control of one corporation by another. Active Market: This is a term used by stock exchange which specifies the particular stock of share that deals in frequent and regular transactions. It helps the buyers to obtain reasonably large amounts any time. Ad-valorem Tax: Ad-valorem tax is a kind of indirect tax in which goods are taxed by their values. Value Added Tax (VAT) is an ad-valorem tax. American Depositary Receipt (ADR): A security issued by a US bank in place of the foreign shares held in trust by that bank, thereby facilitating the trading of foreign shares in US markets. Amortization: Accounting for expenses of chargers as applicable rather than as paid. Appreciation: Appreciation means an increase in the value of something, e.g., stock of raw materials or manufactured goods. Arbitrage: A technique employed to take advantage of differences in price. Arbitration: Where there is an industrial dispute, the arbitration comes to the force. The judgement is given by the Arbitrator.

Both the parties have to accept and honour the Arbitration. Assets: Everything a corporation or an org­ anisation owns that is due to it: cash, investments, money due it, materials and inventories, which are called current assets; buildings and machinery, which are known as fixed assets; and patents and goodwill, called intangible assets. Auction: When a commodity is sold by auction, the bids are made by the buyers. Whosoever makes the highest bid gets the commodity which is being sold. Auction market: The system of trading securities through brokers of agents on an exchange such as the Bombay Stock Exchange. Auditor’s report: Often called the accountant’s opinion, it is the statement of the accounting firm’s work, its opinion of the corporation’s financial statements, especially if they conform to the normal and generally accepted practices of accountancy. Autarchy: It means self-sufficiency and selfreliance of an economy. Balance Sheet: Balance sheet is a statement showing the assets and liabilities of a business at certain date. Balance of Trade: The part of a nation’s balance of payments accounts that deals only with its imports and exports of goods and services. Bank: Bank is a financial institution. It accepts funds on current account and savings accounts. It also lends money. Bank Draft: Banker’s draft (Demand Draft) is a negotiable claim drawn upon a bank. Bank Draft is safer than a cheque. Bank Rate: It is official rate interest charged by Reserve Bank of India on loans to other banks. It is the rate at which RBI discounts first class securities including bills of exchange. Thus, it is known as discount. Bankruptcy: It is a situation in which a person is unable to discharge his debt obligations. Basket of Currency: In this system, the exchange value of a country’s currency is fixed in terms of some major international currencies. Indian rupee is valued against US Dollar, British Pound, Japanese Yen,

Indian Economy

French Frank and German Deutsche Mark. India opted for this system in 1975. Bear and Bull: ‘Bear’ is an individual who sells shares in a hope that stock’s price would fall. ‘Bull’ is an individual who buys shares in a hope that the stock’s price would rise. Bearer Bond: A bond that does not have the owner’s name registered on the books of the issuer. Bill of Exchange: It is an unconditional order in writing addressed by one person to another requiring the addressee it pay on demand or at a fixed future time a certain sum of money to the order of the specified person to the bearer. Black Money: It is unaccounted money which is concealed from tax authorities. Black money creates parallel economy. Blue Chip Stocks: Stocks in large, nationally known companies that have been profitable for a long time and are well-known and trusted. Blue Collar Jobs: These jobs are concerned with factory. Persons who are unskilled and depend upon manual jobs that require physical strain on human muscle are said to be engaged in Blue Collar Jobs. Blue Sky Laws: A popular name for laws various states have enacted to protect the public against securities frauds. Bond: A bond is evidence of a debt on which the issuing company usually promises to pay the bondholders a specified amount of interest for a specified length of time, and to repay the loan on the expiration date. Boom: Point at which price and employment are the maximum. Bounty: It is a subsidy paid by the government to exporters. Brain-Drain: It means the drift of intellectuals of a country to another country. Bride Loan: A loan made by a bank for a short period to make up to a temporary shortage of cash. Broad Banding: It means providing more flexibility to manufacturers to produce wider variety of products with same material mix so as to ensure optimum capacity.

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Broker: An agent who handles the public’s orders to buy and sell securities commodities or other property. Brokers’ Loans: Money borrowed by brokers from banks or other brokers for a variety of uses. Buffer stocks: These are the stocks (generally of primary goods) accumulated by a government agency when supply is plentiful. Bullion: It is gold or silver having a specific degree of purity. Bull Market: It is a market where the speculators buy shares of commodities in anticipation of rising prices. The opposite is Bear Market. Buoyancy: In the inflationary period, the increase in tax revenue is known as buoyancy. Buyer’s Market: When the markets is favourable to buyer’s market. This situation occurs when there is a change from boom to recession. Callable: A bond issue, all or part of which may be redeemed by the issuing firm, institution or organisation under specified conditions before maturity. Call Money: It is a loan that is made for a very short period of a few days only or for a week. Capital: The stock of goods which are used in production and which themselves have been produced. Capitalism: The economic system based on free enterprise and private profit. Capitalism is an economic system in which all means of production are owned by private individuals. Capital Market: It is a market for long-term loans. Capital Market: It is a market for long loans. Capital stock: All shares representing ownership of a business, including preferred and common. Capitalisation: Total amount of the various securities issued by an organisation or a company. Capitalisation may include bonds, debentures, preferred and common stocks, and surplus. Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR): It refers to that portion of banker’s total cash reserves which they are statutorily to hold with the RBI.

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General Knowledge  2020

Cash Sale: A transaction on the floor of the stock exchange that calls for delivery of the securities the same day. Ceiling Prices: This is the maximum limit fixed generally by the government or its agency. Certificate: The actual piece of paper that is an evidence of the ownership of stock in a company or an organisation. Certificate of Deposit (CD): A money market instrument characterised by its set date of maturity and interest rate. There are two basic types of CDs: traditonal and negotiable. Cheap Money: It indicates a situation when bank rate and other rates of interest are low. Cheque: Cheque is an order in writing issued by the drawer to a bank. Clearing House: Clearing house is an institution which helps to settle the mutual indebtedness that occurs among the members of its organisation. Closed Economy: Closed economy refers to the economy having no foreign trade (i.e. export and import). Collateral: Securities or other property pledged by a borrower to secure repayment of a loan. Commercial Paper: Debt instruments issued by companies to meet short-term financing needs. Commission: The broker’s basic fee for purchasing or selling securities or property as an agent. Common Stock: Securities that represent an ownership interest in a company. The terms common stock and capital stock are often used interchangeably when the company has no preferred stock. Competitive Trader: A member of the exchange who trades in stocks on the floor for an account in which there is an interest. He is also known as a registered trader. Conglomerate: A company or an organisation that has diversified its operations usually by acquiring enterprises in widely varied industries. Consolidated Balance Sheet: It is a balance sheet showing the financial condition of a corporation and its subsidiaries.

Convertible: A bond, debenture or preferred share that may be exchanged by the owner for common stock or another security, usually of the same company, in accordance with the terms of the issue. Core Industries: Core industries include strategic, basic and critical industries which remain generally under state control. Corporate Tax: It is a direct tax levied on company’s profit. Correspondent: A securities firm, bank or other financial organization that regularly performs services for another in a place or market to which the other does not have direct access. Cost Price Index (CPI): It is used for measuring cost of living and it covers large number of commodities than Wholesale Price Index (WPI) which is used for measuring rate of inflammation. Coupon Bond: Bond with interest coupons attached. Credit Control: It implies the measures employed by central bank of a country to control the volume of credit in the banks. Credit Rating: It is the assessed credit worthiness of prospective customer. Credit Rationing: Credit rationing takes place when the banks discriminate between the borrowers. Credit Squeeze: Monetary authorities restrict credit as and when required. This credit restriction is called credit squeeze. Current Assets: Those assets of a company are reasonably expected to be realized in cash, sold or consumed during one year. Currency Devaluation: A government adjusts the value of the nation’s currency so that it buys less of foreign currencies than before. Current Liabilities: Money owed and payable by a company, usually within one year. Custom Duty: It implies tax on imports. Custom duty is a duty that is imposed on the products received from exporting nations of the world. It is also called protective duty as it protects the home industries. Cyclical Unemployment: It is that phase of unemployment which appears due the

Indian Economy

occurrence of the downward phase of the trade cycle. Dealer: An individual of firm in the securities business who buys and sells stocks and bonds as a principal rather as an agent. Death Rate: Death rate signifies the number of deaths in a year per thousand of the population. It is mostly known as crude death rate. Life expectancy is important determinant of death rate. Debentures: It is document which enlists the terms or conditions of a loan. Debit Balance: In a customer’s margin account, that portion of the purchase price of stock, bonds or commodities that is covered by credit extended by the broker to the margin customer. Decentration: Decentration means the establishment of various units of the same industry at different places. Deed: It is a written contract signed under legal seal. Deflation: Deflation is a fall in the general price level over a particular period of time. It is opposite to inflation. Demand Draft: It is a bill of exchange payable at sight. Depository Trust Company (DTC): A central securities certificate depository through which members effect security deliveries between each other via computerised book-keeping entries, thereby reducing the physical moment of stock certificates. Depreciation: A reduction in the value of capital goods over time due to their use in production. Depreciation of Currency: A decline in the price of one currency relative to another. Depression: It implies a state of economy when lack of demand result in heavy unemployment and stagnation in economy. Devaluation: It is the reduction in the official rate of a currency in terms of a foreign currency. India rupee has been devalued thrice in 1949, 1966, and 1991. Director: Person elected by shareholders to serve on the Board of directors. Discount: The amount by which a preferred stock or bond may sell below its ‘at par’ value.

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Discretionary Account: An account in which the customer gives the broker or someone else discretion to buy and sell securities or commodities, including selection, timing, amount, and price to be paid or received. Diversification: Spreading investments among different types of securities and various companies in different fields. Divided: It is earnings on stocks paid to shareholders. Dow Theory: A theory of market analysis based upon the performance of the Dow Jones Industrial Average and transportation stock price averages. The theory says that the market is in a basic upward trend if one of these averages advances above a previous important high, accompanied or followed by a similar advance in the other. When both averages dip below previous important lows, this is regarded a confirmation of a downward trend. Dumping: It means selling goods in international market at a price which is lower than in domestic or home market. Earnings Report: A statement, also called an income statement, issued by a company showing its earnings or losses over a given period. Elasticity of Demand: The responsiveness of demand of a commodity to the change in its price is known as elasticity of demand. Embargo: It means prohibition of entry of goods from certain countries into a particular country. Eagle’s Law: According to the law, “When a family’s income increases the percentage of its income spent on food decreases.” Equity: The ownership interest of common and preferred stockholders in a company. Exchange Rate: The rate at which central bank will exchange one country’s currency for another. Excise Tax: Tax imposed on the manufacture, sale or the consumption of various commodities such as taxes on textiles, cloth, liquor, etc. Ex-dividend: A synonym for ‘without dividend.’ The buyer of a stock of additional money may do so by offering their stockholders the right to subscribe to new or additional

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stock, usually at a discount from the prevailing market price. The buyer of stock selling ex-rights is not entitled to the right. Extra: The short form of ‘extra dividend.’ A dividend in the form of stock or cash in addition to the regular or usual dividend the company has been paying. Face Value: The value of a bond that appears on the face of the bond, unless the value is otherwise specified by the issuing company. Factor Cost: It is the sum total of amount paid to four main factors of production, i.e. Land (rent), Labour (compensation of employees), Capital (interest), and Entrepreneurship (profit). FINRA: The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (f/k/a National Association of Securities Dealers), is the largest nongovernmental regulator for all securities firms doings business in the United States. Fiscal Year: A firm’s or company’s or a cor­ poration accounting year. Fixed Charges: A company’s fixed expenses such as bond interest which it has agreed to pay whether or not earned, and which are deducted from income before earnings on equity capital are computed. Floating of a Currency: When the exchange value of a currency in terms of other currencies is not fixed officially, that currency is said to be floating. Floor: The huge trading area–about the size of a football field–where stocks, bonds and options are bought and sold on the stock exchange. Floor Broker: A member of the stock exchange who executes orders on the floor of the exchange to buy or sell any listed securities. Foreign Exchange Reserves: Foreign Exchange Reserves of a country includes foreign currency assets and interest bearing bonds held by it. Free and Open Market: A market in which supply and demand are freely expressed in terms of price. Free Trade: It implies absence of any protective tariffs or trade barriers by any economy with respect to export and import. Fundamental Research: Analysis of industries and companies based on such factors

as sales, assets, earnings, products or services, markets, and management. Funded Debt: Usually, interest-bearing bonds or debentures of a company. These could include long-term bank loans. General Mortgage Bond: A bond that is secured by a blanket mortgage on the company’s property but may be outranked by one or more other mortgages. Gilt-edged: High-grade bond issued by a company that has demonstrated its ability to earn a comfortable profit over a period of years and pay its bondholders their interest without interruption. Good ‘til Canceled (GTC) or Open Order: An order to buy or sell that remains in effects until it is either executed of canceled. Gresham’s Law: “If not limited in quantity; bad money drives good money out of circulation.” Gross Domestic Product (GDP): It is the aggregate of total flow of goods and services produced by an economy in year. Gross National Product (GNP): Gross Domestic Product plus net factor income from abroad is equal to Gross National Product. Holding Company: A corporation that owns the securities of another, in most cases with voting control. Hot Money: It is volatile money which comes easily but can also go out easily, e.g., portfolio investment. Hypothecation: The pledging of securities as collateral, for example, to secure the debit balance in a margin account. Income Bond: Generally, income bonds promise to repay principal but to pay interest only when earned. Indenture: A written agreement under which bonds and debentures are issued, setting fourth maturity date, interest rate and other terms. Index: A statistical yardstick expressed in terms of percentages of a base year of years. Inflation: It is a sustained increase in general price level over a particular period of time. It reduces the purchasing power of money. Institutional Investor: An organization whose primary purpose is to invest in own assets of those held in trust by in for others.

Indian Economy

Interest: Payments borrowers pay lenders for the use of their money. Interim Budget: It is an addition on the general budget and is presented as a part of it through the financial year. Interrogation Device: A computer terminal that provides market information–last sale price, quotes, volume, etc.–on a screen or paper tape. Investment: The use of money for the purpose of making more money, to gain income, increase capital, or both. Investment Banker: Also known as an underwriter. The middleman between the corporation issuing new securities and the public. Investment Counsel: One whose principal business consists of acting as in investment advisor and rendering investment super­ visory services. I.O.U.: It means ‘I owe you’. It is non-negotiable promissory note indicating the debt owed by one party to another. Initial Public offering (IPO): A company’s first sale of stock to the public. IRA: Individual retirement account. A pension plan with tax advantages. IRAs permit investment through intermediaries like mutual funds, insurance companies and banks, or directly in stocks and bonds through stockbrokers. Issue: Any of a company’s securities, or the act of distributing such securities. Joint Stock Company: It is a form of company in which a number of people contribute funds to finance a firm in return of ‘shares’ in the company. Keogh plan: Tax-advantaged personal retire­ ment programme that can be established by a self-employed individual. Laissez-faire: Literally, it means to let people do as they choose. It is an economic doctrine which emphasizes the superiority of ‘free’ trade and ‘free’ markets over state’s interference in economic affairs. Legal Tender: It is the currency (coins and bank notes) which have to be accepted in payment. Leverage: The effect on a company when the company has bonds preferred stock, or both outstanding.

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Limit Limited Order, or Limited Price Order: An order to buy or sell a stated amount of a security at a specified price, or at a better price, if obtainable after the order is represented in the trading crowd. Liquidation: The process of converting securities or other property into cash. Liquidity: The ability of the market in a particular security to absorb in reasonable amount of buying or selling at reasonable price changes. Listed Stock: The stock of a company that is traded in a stock exchange. Load: The portion of the offering price of shares of open-end investment companies in excess of the value of the underlying assets. Locked in: Investors are said to be locked in when they have profit on securities they own but do not sell because their profit would immediately come down subject to the capital gains tax. Margin: The amount paid by the customer when using a broker’s debt to buy or sell a security. Margin Call: A demand upon a customer to put up money or securities–the broker. Market Order: An order to buy or sell a stated amount of a security at the most advantageous price obtainable after the order is represented in the trading crowd. Market Price: The last reported price at which the stock or bond sold, or the current quote. Market Value: The market value of an equity share is the price at which it is traded in the market. Merchant Banking: In Merchant Banking, banks act as ‘underwriter’ and do business on behalf of corporate sector. Merger: Combination of two or more cor­ porations. MODVAT: The modified system of valueadded taxation is based on the idea of tax final products and not input that go into production. Money Market Fund: A mutual fund whose investments are in high-yield money market instruments such as federal securities, CDs and commercial paper. Monopoly: It is a type of market structure having one seller and many buyers.

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General Knowledge  2020

Monopsony: A market situation, in which there is only one buyer of a resource. Mortgage Bond: A bond secured by a mortgage on a property. MoU: The concept of Memorandum of Under­ standing introduced in 1988. The main objective of MoU is to reduce the quantity. Mutual Fund: It is a form of collective investment that is useful spreading risks and optimising returns. Nasdaq: An automated information network that provides brokers and dealers with price quotations on securities traded over the counter. Nasdaq is an acronym for National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations. National Income: It is equal to the total money value of goods and services produced over the given time less capital consumption. Negotiable: Refers to a security, the title of which is transferable by delivery. Net Asset Value: Usually used in connection with investment companies to mean net asset value per share. Net Change: The change in the price of security from the closing price on one day to the closing price the next day on which the stock is traded. Net Domestic Product (NDP): The money value of a nation’s annual output of goods and service, less capital consumption (depreciation) experienced in producing that output. Net National Product (NNP): Net National Product is equal to Net Domestic Product plus Net Factor Income from abroad. New York Futures Exchange (NYFE): A subsidiary of the New York Stock Exchange devoted to the trading of futures products. New York Stock Exchange (NYSE): The largest organized securities market in the United States, founded in 1792. Noncumulative: A type of preferred stock on which unpaid dividends do not accrue. NYSE Composite Index: The composite index covering price movements of all common stocks listed on the New York Stock Exc­ hange.

Octroi: It is an internal tariff system among different region of a country. Odd Lot: An amount of stock less than the established 100-share unit. Off-board: This term may refer to transactions over-the-counter in listed securities or to transactions of listed shares that are not executed on a national securities exchange. Offer: The price at which a person is ready to sell. Oligopoly: A market structure, in which a few, relatively large firms account for all or most of the production or sales of a good or service in a particular market, and where barriers to new firms entering the market are very high. Overbought: An opinion as to price levels. May refer to a security has had a sharp rise or to the market as a whole after a period of vigorous buying which, it may be argued, has left prices ‘too high’. Oversold: The reverse of overbought. A single security or a market which, it is believed, has declined to an unreasonable level. Over-the-counter: A market for securities made up of securities exchange. Paper Profit (Loss): An unrealized profit or loss on a security still held paper profits and losses become realized only when the security is sold. Par: In the case of a common share, par means a dollar amount assigned to the share by the company’s charter. Participating preferred: A preferred stock that is entitled to its state dividend and to additional dividends on a specified basis upon payment of dividends on the common stock. Passed dividend: Omission of a regular or scheduled dividend. Penny Stocks: Low-priced issues, often highly speculative, selling less than $1 a share. Per Capita Income: It implies income per person. It is obtained in dividing national income of country by its population. Plastic Money: It refers to use of instruments like ‘Credit cards’ instead of cash in business transactions. Point: In the case of shares of stock, a point means $1.

Indian Economy

Portfolio: Holdings of securities by an ind­ ividual or institution. Poverty Line: The poverty line has been fixed by the planning commission on the basis of an average daily intake of 2400 calories person in rural areas and 2100 calories per capita in urban areas. In monetary terms, the poverty line is commented to be ` 76 per month in rural and ` 88 in urban areas in terms of 1979-80 prices. Preferred Stock: A class of stock with a claim on the company’s earnings before payment may be made on the common stock and usually entitled to priority over common stock if the company liquidates. Premium: The amount by which a bond or preferred stock may sell above its par value. Price-to-earnings Ratio: A popular way to compare stocks selling at various price levels. The P/E ratio is the price of a share of stock divided by earnings per share for a 12-month period. Primary Distribution: Also called primary or initial public offering. The original sale of a company’s securities. Prime Rate: The lowest interest rate charged by commercial banks to their most creditworthy customers; other interest rates such as personal, automobile, commercial and financing loans are often pegged to the prime. Principal: The person for whom a broker executes an order, or dealers buying or selling for their own accounts. Progressive Tax: A tax that take a larger percentage of income from people in higherincome groups than from people in lowerincome ones. P r o f i t - t a k i n g : Selling stock that has appreciated in value since purchase, in order to realize the profit. Prospectus: The official selling circular that must be given to purchasers of new securities registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. Proxy: Written authorization given by a shareholder to someone else to represent him or her and vote his or her shares at a shareholders meeting.

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Proxy Statement: Information given to stock­ holders in conjunction with the solicitation of proxies. Recession: Recession cycle characterised by a modest downturn in the level of economic activity means fall up of demand. Reflation: It is an increase in the level of National Income and Output. Reflation is often deliberately brought about by the authorities in order to secure full employment and to increase the rate of economic growth. Quote: The highest bid to buy and the lowest offer to sell a security in a given market at a given time. Rally: A brisk rise following a decline in the general price level of the market, or in an individual stock. Record Date: The date on which you must be registered as a shareholder of a company in order to receive a declared dividend or, among other things to vote on company affairs. Redemption price: The price at which a bond may be redeemed before maturity, at the option of the issuing company. Refinancing: Same as refunding. New securities are sold by a company and the money is used to retire existing securities. Registered Bond: A bond that is registered on the books of the issuing company in the name of the owner. Registrar: Usually, a trust company or bank charged with the responsibility of keeping record of the owners of corporation’s securities and preventing the issuance of more than the authorized amount. Regressive Tax: A tax that takes a larger percentage of income from people in groups than from higher-income ones. Sales taxes and excise taxes are example. Regulation T: The federal regulation governing the amount of credit that may be advanced by brokers and dealers to customers for the purchase of securities. Regulation U: The federal regulation governing the amount of credit that may be advanced by banks to customers for the purchase of listed stocks.

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General Knowledge  2020

Rights: When a company wants to raise more funds by issuing additional securities, it may give its stockholders the opportunity, ahead others, to buy the new securities in proportion to the number of shares each one owns. The piece of paper evidencing this privilege is called a right. Scheduled Bank: It is a bank included in the second schedule of RBI has a minimum cash reserve of ‘` 5 lakh’. Scale Order: An order to buy (or sell) a security, that specifies the total amount to be bought (or sold) at specified price variations. Scripophily: A term coined in the mid1970s to describe the hobby collecting antique bonds, stocks, and other financial instruments. SDRs (Special Drawing Rights): The SDR is a reverse asset created with the framework of the International Monetary Fund in an attempt to increase international liquidity and forming a part of country’s official reserves also with gold, reserve positions in the IMF and convertible foreign currency. It is also known as ‘Paper Gold’. Self-Reliance: Self-Reliance, in short, can mean attainment of economic independence which, in turn, implies capability to sustain a higher rate of growth of economy essentially with the help of the domestic resources. Seller’s Market: It is market situation which exists for a short time period. Sell Side: The portion of the securities business in which orders are transacted. The sell side includes retail brokers, institutional brokers and traders, and research departments. Sensex: The Stock Exchange Sensitive Index (popularly referred to as the SENSEX) reflects the weighted arithmetic average of the price relative of a group of share included in the index of sensitive shares. Serial Bond: An issue that matures in part at periodic stated intervals. Settlement: Conclusion of a securities transaction when a customer pays a broker/dealer for securities purchased or

delivers securities sold and receives from the broker the proceeds of a sale. Shares: These are the equal portions of the capital of a limited company. The holders of the ordinary shares carry the residual risk of the business; they rank after debenture holders and preference shareholders for the payment of dividends and they are liable for losses, although this liability is limited dividends and they are liable for losses, although this liability is limited to the value of the shares and to the limit of guarantee given by them. Preference shares are such shares of a company on which interest is paid before any others, and owners have prior right to repayment of capital if company is wound up. Share Capital: Money raised by issuing of shares is called Share Capital. Share Index: It is the statistical indicator of overall share values, based on selected group. Short Covering: Buying stock to return stock previously borrowed to make delivery on a short sale. Short Sale: A transaction by a person who believes a security will decline and sells it, though the person does not own any. Sinking Fund: Money regularly set aside by a company to redeem its bonds, debentures or preferred stock from time as specified in the indenture or charter. Speculation: The employment of funds by a speculator. Safety of principal is a secondary factor. Speculator: One who is willing to assume a relatively large risk in the terms good hope of gain. Spin Off: The separation of a subsidiary or division of a corporation from its parent company by issuing shares in a new corporate entity. Split: The division of the outstanding shares of a corporation into larger number of shares. Stock Exchange: An organised marketplace for securities featured in the centralisation of supply and demand for the transaction of orders by member brokers for institutional and individual investors.

Indian Economy

Stock Dividend: A dividend paid in securities rather than in cash. Stockholder of Record: A stockholder whose name is registered on the books of the issuing corporation. Stop Limit Order: A stop order that becomes a limit order after the specified stop price has been reached. Stop order: An order to buy at price above or sell at a price below the current market. Stop buy orders are generally used to limit loss or protect unrealized profits on a short sale. Stop sell orders are generally used to profits on a short sale. Stop sell orders are generally used to protect unrealized profits on limit loss on a holding. Street Name: Securities held in the name of a broker instead of customer’s name are said to be carried in ‘street name’. Swapping: Selling one security and buying a similar one almost at the same time to take a loss, usually for tax purposes. Syndicate: A group of investment bankers who together underwrite and distribute a new issue of securities or a large block of an outstanding issue. Technical Research: Analysis of the market and stocks based on support and demand. Tender Offer: A public offer to buy shares from an existing stockholder of one public corporation by another public corporation under specific terms, good for a certain period of time. Third Market: Trading of stock exchangelisted securities in the over the counter market by non-exchange member brokers. Ticker: A telegraphic system that continuously provides the last sale prices and volume of securities transactions of exchanges. Trader: Individuals who buy and sell for their own accounts for short term profit. Transfer Agent: A transfer agent keeps a record of the name of each registered shareowner, his or her address, the number of shares owned, and sees that certificates presented for transfer are properly canceled and new certificates issued in the name of the new owner. Treasury Stock: Stock issued by a company but later reacquired. It may be held in the

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company’s treasury indefinitely, reissued to the public or retired. Turnover Rate: The volume of shares traded in a year as a percentage of total shares listed on an exchange, outstanding for an individual issue or held in an institutional portfolio. Unlisted Stock: A security not listed on a stock exchange. Up Tick: A term used to designate a transaction made at a price higher than the preceding transaction. Also called a ‘plus’ tick. A ‘zeroplus’ tick is a term used for a transaction at the same price as the preceding trade but higher than the preceding different price. Conversely a down tick, or ‘minus’ tick, is a term used to designate a transaction made at a price lower than the preceding trade. Variable Annuity: A life insurance policy where the annuity premium (a set amount of dollars) is immediately turned into units of a portfolio of stocks. Upon retirement, the policyholder is paid according to accumulated units, the dollar value of which varies according to the performance of the stock portfolio. VAT: It seeks to tax the value added at every stage of manufacturing and sale with a provision of refunding the amount of VAT already paid at earlier stage to avoid double taxation. Volume: The number of shares or contracts traded in a security or area entire market during a given period. Voting Right: A common stockholder has right to vote his/her stock in affairs of a company. The right to vote may be delegated by the stockholder to another person. Warrants: Certificates giving the holder the rights to purchase security at a stipulated price within a specified time limit or perpetually. Working Control: Theoretically, ownership of 51% of a company’s voting stock is necessary to exercise control. In practice and this is particular true in the case of a large corporation, effective control sometimes can exerted through ownership, individually or by a group acting in control of less than 50%.

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General Knowledge  2020

Yield: Also known as return. The dividends or interest paid be a company expressed as a price. Yield to Maturity: The yield of a bond to mat­ urity takes into account the price discount from or premium over the face value. Zero Coupon Bond: A bond that pays no interest but is priced, at a discount from its redemption price. The existence of a large parallel economy fluctuates is agricultural and industrial output and indirect taxation are the reasons for:

Cost Push Inflation

• Among the supply side, measure to contain inflation is to increase the supply of products or commodities. • Population experts refer to the possible ‘demographic bonus’ that may accrue to India around 2016 AD. They are referring to the phenomenon of a surge in the population in the productive age-group. • The significant change in the new FEMA which has replaced FERA is that the emphasis from imprisonment will be shifted to: Various Acts and their Enactment Years

Madhukar Committee

Gold exchange-traded fund implementation.

L.C. Gupta Committee

Derivatives in India Model

Naresh Chandra Committee

Corporate Audit and Governance

J.J. Irani Committee

Company Law Reforms

B. Bhattacharya Committee

Committee on pension reforms

Rakesh Mohan Committee

Small savings and Administered interest rates

Vijay Kelkar Committee

FRBM (Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management) Act implementation

S.P. Gupta Committee

Generation of employment opportunities in the 10th plan

Raghvan Committee

Replacement of MRTP Act by Competition Act.

Eradi Panel

Industrial Insolvency

M.S. Verma

Restructuring weak banks.

1.

Banking Regulation Act

1949

2.

Industries (Development and Regulation) Act

1951

Lakdawala Committee

Estimating poverty line in India

3.

MRTP Act

1969

Power Sector reforms

4.

FERA

1973

Montek Singh Ahuluwalia

5.

Negotiable Instruments Act

1981

Rakesh Mohan Committee

Development of Infrastructure in India

6.

FEMA

2000

Competition Act

2002

Abid Hussain Committee

Small Scale Sector

7.

Jha Committee

MODVAT

Commissions/Committees and Their Purpose Arjun Sen Gupta Committee

Public Sector Enterprise Autonomy

Rangarajan Committee

Disinvestment of PSUs and Balance of Payments

Malhotra Committee

Insurance Sector and its regulation. Follow-up led to setting up of IRDA.

Vasudev Committee NBFC Omkar Goswami Committe

Industrial Sickness

G.V. Ramakrishna

Disinvestment Commission

Arvind Virmani

Import Tariff Reform

Vaghul Committee

Money Markets India reforms

Indian Economy

331

FERA and FEMA FERA

FEMA

Violation of FERA was a criminal offence.

Violation of FEMA is a civil wrong.

Offences under FERA were not compoundable.

Offences under FEMA are compoundable.

Penalty was 5 times the amount involved.

Penalty is 3 times the sum involved.

Citizenship was a criteria to determine residential status of a person under FERA.

Stay in India for more than 182 days is the criteria to decide residential status.

There was only one Appellate Authority namely Foreign Exchange Regulation Appellate Board.

There are two appellate authorities, namely: 1. Special Director (Appeals) 2. A ppellate Tribunal for Foreign Exchange.

Science

335

Physics Scalar Quantities

Unit The chosen standard used for measuring a physical quantity is called unit.

System of Units

Units depend on choice. Each choice of units leads to a new system (set) of units. The internationally accepted systems are (i) CGS system; (ii) EPS System; (iii) FPS System; and (iv) SI Units. SI Base Units Base quantity

Unit

Symbol

Length Mass Time Electric current Thermodynamic temperature Amount of substance Luminous intensity Supplementary Physical Quantity Plane angle Solid angle

metre kilogram second ampere

m kg s A

kelvin

K

mole

mol

candela Supplementary Unit radian steradian

cd Symbol rad. Sr

Standard Units viscocity

pascal second

Power

dioptre

Inductance

henry

Loudness

phon

Magnetic inductance

tesla

Magnetic flux

weber

Electric charge

farad, coulomb

Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction are called scalar quantities. Example: Mass, Speed, Volume, etc.

Vector Quantities

Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both and which obey triangle law are called vector quantities. Example: Displacement, Velocity, etc.

Kinematics Distance

Distance is the length of actual path covered by a moving object in a given time interval. • Distance is a scalar quantity whereas dis­p lacement is a vector quantity both having the same unit.

Displacement

• The difference between the final and the initial position of an object is called displacement. • It is a vector quantity. Its unit is metre. • The magnitude of displacement may or may not be equal to the path length traversed by an object. • Displacement may be positive, negative or zero whereas distance is always positive.

Speed

• The average speed of a particle for a given interval of time is defined as the ratio of total distance travelled to the total time taken. Average speed =

Total distance travelled Total time taken

336

General Knowledge  2020

• Distance travelled by the moving object in unit time interval is called speed. It is scalar quantity and its SI unit is metre/second (m/s). Velocity of a moving object is defined as the displacement of the object in the unit time interval. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is metre/second. Distance Time

Speed =

Velocity =

Displacement Time

Uniform Velocity • An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time.

Relative Velocity • When two bodies are moving in the straight line, the speed (or velocity) of one with respect to another is known as its relative speed (or velocity). Important Prefixes to Units tera (T) 1012

giga (G) 109

Mega (M)106

kilo (K) 103

hecto (h) 102

deka (da) 10

deci (d) 10

–2

centi (C) 10

mili (m) 10–3

Micro (µ) 10–6

nano (n) 10–9

Pilo (P) 10–12

Femp (f) 10–15

atto (a) 10–18

–1

Acceleration • Acceleration of an object is defined as the rate of change of velocity of the object. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is metre/ second2 (m/s2). If velocity decreases with time then acceleration is negative and is called retardation. • Accceleration (a) = v – u t • When the velocity of a body increases with time then its acceleration is negative and is called retardation or deceleration.

Motion If the position of an object changes with time,